
Class I (n QQ> 
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( OnUKilir DKI'OSIT. 



Geography of Nebraska 



BY 

GEORGE EVERT CONDRA, Ph. D. 

ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF GEOGRAPHY AND ECONOMIC GEOLOGY 
THE UNIVERSITY OF NEBRASKA 




LINCOLN, NEBRASKA 

THE UNIVERSITY PUBLISHING CO. 

1906 






LIBRARY of CONGRESS 


Two CoDies Rf»ceive(l 


JUN 211906 


yi^ Copyrieht Entry 
CLASS ' CC xic. N«. 
CO*»Y B. 



COPYRKJHT, lOOfi 
BY 

THE UNIVERSITY PUBLISHING COMPANY 



All Rights Reserved 



R. DONNELLEY * SONS COMPANY 
CHICAGO 



CONTENTS 



Chapter Page 

1 



I Introductory Chapter 

II Structure of Nebraska 

in Story of the Structure 

IV Weather of Nebraska .... 

V Climate of Nebraska .... 

VI Ground, Water and Drainage 

VII Principal Drainage Basins and Rivers 

VIII The I.oess Region ... 

IX The Sand Hill Region .... 

X The PIigh Plains Region 

XI The Bad I^ands 

XII Settlement and Development of Nebraska 

XIII Summary of Resources and Industries 

XIV Methods of Reclamation 

XV Cities and Towns . . . . 

Index 



8 

18 

23 

33 

43 

55 

72 

85 

96 

109 

114 

134 

160 

171 

187 



PREFACE 

There is a lack of geography hterature in Nebraska. Various 
state and United States pubhcations have been issued, but 
most of them are now not accessible, and none of them were 
written for use in schools. This elementary text is intended 
primarily for use in the graded and rural schools. However, 
its subjects are presented in a way that may recommend the 
book to general readers as well, in the absence of a more 
complete treatment of the subject. 

The subject matter of the volume is based for the most part 
on the author's personal experience in the state while working 
on the Nebraska Geological Survey and for the United States 
Geological Survey. The author has also obtained data from 
publications of the following authors: Barbour, Bessey, 
Blackman, Clements, Darton, Johnson, Lyon, Loveland, 
Sheldon, Swezey and Todd. 

A few references are cited in each chapter. Of these, the 
topographic maps and folios shown by plate III, though inex- 
pensive, are very important for class studies. The price of the 
maps is five cents each, or, at wholesale, three dollars a hundred, 
except the Omaha Specials which are ten cents each. The 
folios are twenty-five cents each. These and all other geolo- 
gical publications of the National Government when accessible, 
may be obtained from the Director of the United States 
Geological Survey, Washington, D. C. Part IV of the XXI 
and XXII Annual Reports, Professional Papers 17 and 32, 
and Water Supply Papers 12, 29 and 70 are among the valuable 
Nebraska references which have been issued by the United 
States Geological Surve}^ If accessible, these and volume 
one of the Nebraska Geological Survey should be consulted 
freely by the teacher. 

I am indebted to Professor E. H. Barbour, Director of the 
Nebraska Geological Survey, and to N. H. Darton, of the 
United States Geological Survey, who have very generously 

vii 



vJii PREFACE 

permitted me to publish data which has been collected for 
use elsewhere. 

Thanks are due Miss Bertha T.. Green, Principal of the 
Clinton School, Lincoln, Nebraska, and Miss Emily Guiwits, 
Secretary to the Chancellor, The University of Nebraska, 
who edited the manuscript, placing it in a form which is suited 
to the seventh and eighth grades of the public schools. 

The questions at the end of each chapter were prepared by 
Edward C. Bishop, Deputy Superintendent of Public Instruc- 
tion. They are intended to stimulate observation and dis- 
cussion. Some of them can be answered from the text, but 
many require original thought, though none of the questions 
are difficult. 

The special critics for the text were: 

N. A. Bengtson, Professor of Geography, The Nebraska 
State Normal, at Peru. 

William G. Bishop, Professor of Geography and Agriculture, 
The Nebraska Wesleyan University. 

George A. Loveland, Division Director of the Weather 
Bureau, The University of Nebraska. 

Andrew J. Mercer, Professor of Geography and Agriculture, 
The State Normal School at Kearney. 

W. L. Stephens, Superintendent of Schools, Lincoln. 

For photographs, acknowledgments are due Professor E. H. 
Barbour, E. C. Bishop, U. G. Cornell, N. H, Darton, Professor 
R. A. Emerson, A. E. Sheldon, C. E. Dwyer, and the State 
Historical Society. Photographs not thus credited were with 
three exceptions taken by the author. 

Miss Maud Cheuvront, Mrs. G. E. Condra and Mr. Philip 
J. Harrison have rendered valuable assistance in the prepara- 
tion of manuscript and figures. George Evert Condra 

The University of Nebraska 
March 8, 1906 



99 Green \vi oh 



NEBRASKA 



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THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA 



INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER 

Plan and Purpose. This little volume, written for school 
boys and girls, is a brief description of Nebraska. It tells 
about the geography of our state in a way that should prove 
helpful to those who read it. Thus far in our school course 
we have studied something of all the countries in the world 
and of each state in the United States, but of these we are 
most interested in the state in which we live. The purpose 
of this book is to give some of the important facts in the 
geography of Nebraska. 

What We Wish to Know. We are to study something 
of what the people are doing in various parts of Nebraska, 
to become better acquainted with the resources and industries 
of this state and with the causes of its rapid settlement and 
development. 

Nebraska is not everywhere the same in appearance. The 
surface of the land, the rainfall, the soil, and the structure 
underground all vary from place to place, and thus in turn 
influence our occupations. Just as the soil and rainfall vary 
in the different parts of the state, so, also, there are differ- 
ences in the grasses, trees, and crops. Thus, if we are to 
understand the geography of Nebraska, it will be necessary 
for us to study these conditions or influences which affect 
the development of our state. 

1 



2 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA 

Geographic Influences. We know how people hve in warm 
and in cold countries, and we have read something of dry and 
of moist climates, and their effects upon living things. Usually 
a country with little rainfall is not the best for agriculture. 
We know also about swamp and well-drained lands, and 
something of fertile and of worn-out soils. These may be 




Fig. 1. Teachers of the Valentine Junior Normal on an Even- 
ing Excursion. In the Distance is Lake Minnachaduza 



fit or luifit for certain uses. In some countries there are 
smooth lands, and also those that are too rough for farming or 
travel. We have seen how well-water and building-stone are 
obtained from under-ground. In this book Ave are to learn 
whether Nebraska has fertile soil, good roads, good well-water, 
mineral fuel, building materials, and enough rainfall. These 
are called favorable geographic influences. We are to study 



INTRODUCTORY 3 

also the structure, weather, cUmate, ground-water, drainage, 
and topography of our state, for these control quite largely 
our resources and industries. The native grasses and trees 
are adapted to the conditions under which they live and in 
turn are of use or service to man. 

Importance of Home Studies. We should not forget that 
the places where we live are parts of Nebraska,. It will not be 




Fig. 2. A Class of Teachers Studying Geography in the Field 

possible for all who read this book to see the whole of Nebraska, 
but each may study his home region and compare it with 
other parts of the state. As we read of rivers, crops, and 
other things, let us note how they are like or unlike the same 
things near our homes. The study of the geography of 
Nebraska should interest us in our home geography, v/hich, in 
some cases, is described in this volume. We may find it pos- 
sible to make excursions to places of interest and there study 
things as they are out-of-doors. (Figures 1 and 2) 

Location of Nebraska. Where is Nebraska? Most of us 



4 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA 

will say that the state is where we Hve. This answer is 
correct for persons Hving in Nebraska. But what is the 
position of our state in the United States? What is its exact 
location, its longitude and latitude, and what is its position in 
its relation to the Rocky Mountains and to the Mississippi 
basin? 

By examining a map of the United States we may see that 
Nebraska is a little north of the center of the United States. 
It lies between the meridians of longitude 95° 25' and 104° 
west of Greenwich, and the parallels of latitude 40° and 43° 
north of the equator. It is in that part of the Mississippi 
basin which slopes eastward from the Rocky Mountains. 
The western part of the state is in the Great Plahis region, 
and the eastern part in the prairie region. Under another 
heading we shall learn that the Missouri River is not an exact 
boundary line, and that portions of Nebraska are east of that 
river. 

Extent and Area. Nebraska is one of the largest states 
in the Union. (Plate I) The extreme length is over 450 
miles and the width about 207 miles. The distance from 
Omaha to the west line is about 425 miles. The greatest 
extent in the state is from northwest to southeast, a dis- 
tance of over 500 miles. The area, according to the United 
States Geological Survey, is about 77,510 square miles, 
which is 22,010 square miles greater than that of Rhode 
Island, Delaware, Connecticut, New Jersey, Massachusetts, New 
Hampshire, Vermont, and Maryland combined; the area of 
the six New England states is not so large as Nebraska by 
about 11,045 square miles. The size of our state seems to 
be changing very slowly, therefore we cannot give the exact 
figures. The Missouri River is cutting away the land on its 
right bank faster than on the left; thus entire farms have 
been destroyed in northern Knox, Cedar, and Dixon coun- 



INTRODUCTORY 5 

ties. At a bluff called Ionia, in Dixon County, the river is 
said to have shifted to the right fully one-fourth of a mile 
within fifty years. 

Boundaries. The bordering states are South Dakota on 
the north; South Dakota, Iowa, and Missouri on the east; 
Kansas and Colorado on the south ; and Colorado and Wyo- 
ming on the w^est. The natural boundary line on the east is 
the main channel of the Missouri River. If this river did not 
change its position, the exact dividing line between Ne- 
braska and the bordering states to the east would be located 
without dispute. But the stream is not a stationary boun- 
dary line. It has shifted its channel as much as a mile within 
a year. A very good example of such change is found at 
Omaha. Formerly the Missouri flowed through what is 
now Cut-off Lake, just north-east of the city; later, the river 
straightened its course by cutting across the neck of this big 
loop or bend, leaving the lake in the old channel, and 
transferring a part of Iowa to the west side of the river. 
(Plate IV) In a similar manner the river has shifted its 
course at other places, leaving portions of our state on the 
east side of the stream. 

Nebraska 's boundaries were changed several times during 
its territorial history, and once since its admission to the 
Union as a state. The original territor}^ of Nebraska ex- 
tended westward to the crest of the Rocky Mountains. 

Boundary Disputes. Certain lands along the Missouri 
are claimed by two states. It seems an unusual occurrence 
for one's land to be transferred from one state to another 
without the consent of the owne^*, but this has happened 
at several places along the Missouri River. The owner of 
a farm should know what state and county he lives in, so 
that he may vote at the right place and pay taxes to the 
proper officials. So disputes have arisen, some of which are 
not yet settled. 



6 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA 

B}^ a decision of the United States Supreme Court, the 
land enclosed by Cut-off T^ake at Omaha (Plate IV) is to 
remain a part of Iowa, though it is now on the Nebraska 
side of the river. 

Vertical Position and Surface Slope. The altitude of 
Nebraska may be called its vertical position. (Plate II) It 
is the elevation above sea-level. The highest parts of the 
state are in Banner and Kimball counties, along the western 
border, where a few places exceed 5,300 feet in altitude. 
The lowest part is in the southeast corner of Richardson 
County, Avith an altitude of less than 850 feet. The slope of 
the state as a whole is from west to east, but in the eastern 
counties it is to tlie southeast. The average altitude along 
the Nebraska-Wyoming line is nearly 5,000 feet, while the 
average altitude of the highest land bordering the Missouri 
River from Dakota county southward to the Kansas line is a 
little over 1,200 feet. 

Topographic Regions. We usually think of Nebraska as 
a ''gently rolling" prairie. Such a description applies very 
well to certain parts, but not to the state as a whole. 
As we continue our stud}^ we shall read of very rough lands, 
some of which are called mountains. 

From the character of the surface our state may be divided 
into four regions. (Plate II) They are the Loess, Sand 
Hill, High Plains, and the Bad Lands. Each differs from 
the others in a number of ^A'ays, but principally in topography. 
The regions are described in chapters VII, VIII, IX, and X. 

Topographic Survey. About one-half of Nebraska lias 
been carefully surveyed ^nd mapped by the Topographic 
branch of the United States Geological Survey. The maps 
shown by plate III should be secured and studied as a refer- 
ence by all who use this text. They may be purchased from 
the Director of the United States Geological Survey, Washing- 



INTRODUCTORY 7 

ton, I). C, at five cents each for the standard size, or by 
wholesale, three dollars per hundred, except the Omaha 
specials, which are ten cents each. 

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 

1. Why is a knowledge of the geography of the home state of much 
importance? 

2. What benefits come to us from a knowledge of Nebraska's 
resources and industries? 

3. Question for debate: ''Resolved, That geographic conditions 
influence people more than the people affect their environment. ' ' 

4. Compare the size of Nebraska with that of Maine; of Ohio; of 
Texas. 

5. Do you know what causes the Missouri River to cut its right bank 
more than its left bank? 

6. Is there a "cut-off" near your home? If so, describe it and tell 
how it was formed. 

7. Where are the highest and the lowest points in your county? 

8. What is a topographic region? A relief map? A topographic 
map? 

9. In which topographic region of Nebraska do you live? 
10. What kinds of trees and rocks do you see in figure 1 ? 



CHAPTER II 
STRUCTURE OF NEBRASKA 

We are to learn something of the soils on the surface and 
of the rock beds which lie beneath the surface of the land. 
The stor}^ of this underground structure is very interesting, 
and is best told in geology/ but we are most concerned now 
with the different kinds of rock which occur beneath our soil 
and the manner in which they are arranged. We should 
learn these things because the rocks are important to us in sev- 
eral ways. For one reason, men must obtain materials with 
which to build bridges, houses, and cities; and many of these 
building materials come from the rocks. There are other 
reasons why we should know more of the structure of our 
state; these reasons we shall learn as the subject is studied 
further. 

Mantle Rock. Much of the state is covered by a mantle 
or blanket of soil and loose rock materials, which at most 
places entirely conceals the underlying and firmer rocks. 
The depth of this covering varies from a few inches to about 
two hundred feet. There is no place in our state, how- 
ever, where this mantle of soil, clay, sand, and gravel does not 
lie on beds or layers of rock ; this underlying rock is called the 
bed-rock. 

Rocks below the Surface. If we should sink a deep well 
anywhere in the state, it would reach bed-rock. Have you 
noticed the materials thrown out when cellars and wells 

* Barbour, E. H., Nebraska Geol. Survey, vol. i, pp. 1 16-178. 



STRUCTURE OF NEBRASKA 9 

were dug? Did the rock change in color and in kind with 
depth? 

A place where the layers of rock protrude at the surface is 
called an outcrop. Very good places to see the outcrops are 
at quarries, in river valleys, and in some railroad cuts. If 
the rocks are in layers, they are said to be stratified. If 
the beds or strata have a nearly level position, they are hori- 
zontal; otherwise they tilt or ''dip" in some direction. It 
is also of value for us to learn the kinds of rock. Have 
you seen rock beds outcropping? If so, what kinds, and 
were they used for any purpose? 

Stratified Structure. We do not know just how thick 
the strata are in Nebraska. An artesian well at Lincoln is 
over 2,400 feet deep, and it does not reach through all of 
the beds of limestone, sandstone, clay, and shale. Still deeper 
down there is a very different kind of rock, which is granite ; 
thus far no one has drilled to it in our state. The outcrops in 
the Platte, Missouri, and Republican valleys are composed of 
stratified rock. Do you know of other exposed rock beds? If 
so, have you followed along them for a mile or more? Did 
you see the same kinds in both sides of a ravine or valley, 
and do you know how far in the land each bed extends? Men 
have drilled through the mantle rock and into these rock 
beds several miles distant from their outcrops. This tells 
us, then, that strata extend through the state. Some of 
the best known beds pass entirely through Nebraska and 
outcrop again in other states. We are now ready to define 
the structure. 

Beneath a rather thick mantle rock, Nebraska is composed 
of extensive beds of limestone, chalk, sandstone, clay, and 
shale, which lie one upon another in a nearly horizontal 
position. The oldest rocks exposed are in the southeastern 



10 



THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA 



part. They are overlaid while passing westward and north- 
westward by more recent formations, as shown by figure 3. 

Principal Rock Formations. Nebraska boys and girls 
should know something of the main kinds of rock which com- 
pose the formations that make up the structure. In some 
states the school children talk as familiarly about the differ- 
ent kinds of rock as they do of the flowers or birds. We 
w^ish at least some acquaintance with our most useful forma- 
tions. 




Fig. 3. Ideal Section from Southeastern Nebraska to the 
Black Hills 

1, Carboniferous and Older Beds; 2, Dakota Sandstone ; 3, Benton Shales and 

Limestone; 4, Niobrara Chalk Rock; 5, Pierre Shale; 6, The 

Bad Land Clays ; 7, Pine Ridge and the Tertiary Sands ; 

8, Glacial Deposits , 9, The Loess. 

Carboniferous Strata. The oldest rock beds exposed in 
the state come to the surface along valleys in the southeastern 
counties, where they are known by geologists as the Penn- 
sylvanian and Permian series of the Carboniferous system. 
These strata are mainly limestones and shales (Figure 4), the 
former composed for the most part of shell-like fossils which 
were once the skeletons of marine animals. Between the 
limestone strata are beds of shale, some dark, others light 
to yellowish in color. The shales were made from mud 
deposited in the sea. At places thin beds of coal and sand- 
stone lie between the shales and limestones. The Carbon- 
iferous rocks are very old and more than 2,000 feet thick in 
Nebraska. The layers pass under newer formations to the 



STRUCTURE OF NEBRASKA 11 

northwest, become deeply buried in central and western 
Nebraska, then rise to the surface in the Black Hills and in 




Fig. 4. A Class of Young Men Studying the Pennsylvanian 
Strata near Louisville 

the Rocky Mountains as shown by figure 3. These Carbon- 
iferous rocks were so named because they contain at places 
as in Iowa and Missouri much carbon in the form of coal. 
In Nebraska the Pennsylvanian or lowest and oldest series 



12 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA 

outcrops prominently near Plattsmouth, Weeping Water, 
Nebraska City, and Falls City, where these rocks may be 
seen and studied. Permian strata, l)eing much like the 




Fig. 5. Dakota Sandstone in a Large Bluff near the Mouth 
OF Salt Creek 

underlying Pennsylvanian beds, lie next above the latter 
and outcrop prominently in the Big Blue Valley near Beatrice, 
Blue Springs, and Wymore 

Dakota Sandstone. This formation is next above the 
rocks just described, and is seen by many boys and girls in 



STRUCTURE OF NEBRASKA 



13 



eastern Nebraska, Kansas, and South Dakota. It is composed 
principally of a yellowish or rusty-looking sandstone, and of 
clay beds, light colored to mottled in appearance. Figure 5 
shows how the sand rock looks in a high bluff about two miles 
below Ashland. Other and somewhat similar views are 
found near Endicott, Fairbury, Beatrice, Lincoln, Tekamah, 




Fig. 6. Chalk Bluffs along the Missouri River, Boyd County. 
The Upper Beds are Pierre Shale 



and Ponca. The formation was first described in Dakota 
County, hence it was named the Dakota formation. This stone 
is not very good for building purposes, but the clay is used 
in brick making. These beds extend westward through 
Nebraska, rising high in ridges about the Black Hills and 
along the eastern border of the Rocky Mountains. Later we 
shall learn of a further use of this sandstone in Nebraska. 



14 



THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA 



Benton Shales and Limestone. These are next above 
the sandstone just described. The shales, usually dark in 
color, lie both above and below a limestone ledge which is 
composed of many millions of oyster-like shells. Some of 
us have seen these very old oysters in the rock at places 
in Thayer, Jefferson, Seward, Dakota and Dixon counties. 




Fig. y. Large Glacial Bowlder near Fairbury 

The limestone is quarried, but the shales have no important 
use. The shales, where they outcrop in the northeastern 
part of the state, contain many clear gypsum crystals. 
There, the school children enjoy collecting the crystals for 
cal)inet specimens. 

Niobrara Chalk Rock. This chalk is bluish gray in the 
rock beds and yellowish where it is weathered on the bluffs. 
It is very soft and easily cut with a knife. The thickness of 
the formation varies from 200 to 450 feet, lying just above 



STRUCTURE OF NEBRASKA 



15 



the Benton strata. The chalk is exposed prominently along 
the Missouri River in Boyd, Knox and Cedar counties and 
along the Republican from southwest of Superior to Alma. 
In some respects it is our most interesting formation. 
Many people do not know that there is so much chalk in 
Nebraska, even more than in England. Figure 6 shows the 

chalk bluffs along the 
Missouri River in the 
northern part of Boyd 
County. The forma- 
tion was named from 
the Niobrara River, 
near the mouth of 
which it forms high 
bluffs. The stone is 
sawed out and used at 
places but is too soft 
for most building pur- 
poses. 

Pierre Shale. Rest- 
ing upon the Niobrara 
chalk rock is a thick 
formation composed 
mostly of dark alkaline shales or clays which feel soapy 
when wet. These beds have been called soapstone and 
gumbo. The formation outcrops above the chalk rock (Figure 
6) along the Missouri in northern Knox and Boyd counties, 
along the Republican from near McCook to the Colorado 
line, and in the northwestern corner of the state. The 
name is a very old one coming from a town in South 
Dakota which was named for an early explorer. 

Surface Beds of Clay and Sand. The surface rock in 
western Nebraska is composed of thick layers of sand (Figure 




Fig. 



Loess in a street cut at Omaha 

Photo by E. H. Barbour 



IG THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA 

55) below which are clays several hundred feet thick. The 
latter outcrop in the Bad Lands in the northwestern corner 
of the state. At places, the upper or sandy beds contain 
pebbles and ledges of a light colored rock. 

Glacial Deposits. These materials, called Till, were carried 
into the state by large glaciers. They are clay, sand and, at 
places, pebbles and bowlders, which lie on and conceal many 
of the rock beds in the eastern part of the state. This 
mantle rock varies from a few feet to over 100 feet in 
thickness. At places it is composed principally of a 
brownish clay, as at Omaha, where it is usually confused with 
the overlying Loess. Some of us have seen large glacial 
bowlders in the Till of the eastern counties. (Figure 7) The 
largest known one of these, about 20 feet in diameter, is 
located about three miles northeast of Humboldt in Richard- 
son County. 

Other Kinds of Surface Rock. The buff-colored, fine- 
grained subsoil of eastern, southeastern and southern Ne- 
braska is the Loess. (Figure 8) It resembles the finer mate- 
rials of the Till, but contains no pebbles. Agriculturally it 
is our most important formation. 

The dune sand formation is in north-central Nebraska. 
The alluvial or flood plain formation occurs in valleys 
forming their bottom land. In other chapters we shall read 
more of each kind of surface rock, especially of the Loess. 



QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 

L Of what materials are buildings in your neighborhood made? 

2, Do you know how many of these materials were secured in 
Nebraska? 

3. Make a collection of the different kinds of building materials 
produced near your home. Label each specimen, giving its name and 
the place where it was obtained. 



STRUCTURE OF NEBRASKA 17 

4. What kind of mantle rock do you have near your home? How 
thick is it? Do rocks outcrop near your home? If so, where and what 
kinds? 

5. Add to your collection as many as possible of the rocks described 
in this chapter. 

6. Can you find limestone containing shells or other fossils? 

7. Where is the deepest well in your neighborhood? Does it extend 
into beds of rock? If so, what kinds? (Ask well drillers.) 

8. What does figure 4 show? Why are the boys using the numbers? 

9. Do the oldest rocks of Nebraska pass under your county? (See 
Figure 3.) 

10. Compare figures 5 and 6. Why do these bluffs differ? 

11. Find a glacial bowlder if you can. Does it resemble any of the 
rock you have seen outcropping? 

12. What is subsoil? Is there any Loess soil near your home? If 
so, describe it. 

13. Have you seen alluvial, sand hill or stony soil? If so, give 
description. 

14. What is Till? Do you know what states it covers? 



CHAPTER III 

STORY OF THE STRUCTURE 

In chapter II we learned how Nebraska looks beneath 
the surface. How did these layers come to be as they are? 
Let us read the story of their origin and structure. 

The Older Strata. The oldest beds that outcrop in our 
state were nearly all made in the sea. The limestones are 
composed chiefly of sea shells. An examination of almost any 
piece of this rock will show such shells or fossils in it. They 
are the skeleton remains of creatures that have lived in the 
ocean. As snow, flake by flake, may make a covering many 
inches thick, so these shells settling to the bottom of the sea, 
in. time, made a shell bed many feet deep. This took 
long ages, too long to think of; but it shows us that for all 
that time the sea extended over what is now Nebraska. 
The shales and clays between the limestones were also depos- 
ited in the ocean, but were formed from mud which wa3 
washed in from the land and slowly settled to the bottom. 
The rocks are stratified because they were deposited in water 
as layers of sediment. The material which forms the thin 
coal beds were once plants growing in swampy ])laces and 
then i)eat which after being covered by mud and shells 
became coal. Sandstone is composed of sand, hence the 
name. It was carried to the sea by rivers. We wish also 
to learn of the other changes in sea and land which took 
place here many ages ago. 

Elevation Eastward. After these okler strata were de- 
posited in the sea and shallow water, the land northeast and 

18 



STORY OF THE STRUCTURE 19 

east of Nebraska was elevated. We do not know just what 
caused it to be raised out of the ocean, but we do know 
that land appeared where once was sea. The eastern part of 
our state also was raised, becoming land at that time. The 
slope and drainage was from Iowa westward to an interior 
sea which then covered all of central and western Nebraska, 
and extended from the Gulf of Mexico to the Arctic Ocean. 

The Interior Sea. For long periods of time rivers carried 
sediment into this great body of water and deposited it there. 
The oldest beds then formed now lie far below the surface of 
the western counties and are nowhere exposed in that part 
of the state. The Dakota sandstone was built up from 
sand washed by streams into a shallow sea and strewn widely 
over its floor, but not until the land surface in the eastern part 
of Nebraska and western Iowa had been depressed to or below 
the sea level. After this time the waters deepened and the 
ocean floor was covered with great beds of clay and a thin 
formation of limestone known as the Benton. Then for ages 
shells of small marine animals w^hich flourished in the 
ocean were dropped over the sea floor forming the Niobrara 
chalk rock. The next sediment added was that of the Pierre 
shale which is now a thousand feet thick in places. The time 
which it took to fill this great arm of the sea must have been 
very long, for the rock beds made in it are fully half a mile 
thick in the western counties. 

During most of this time large sea serpents and numerous 
other animals very different from any animals of the present 
time lived in this sea. Their fossils are found in the rocks. 
Slowly the sea of central and western Nebraska was filled with 
sediment; it grew shallow and finally disappeared. 

Elevation Westward. After the interior sea had 
decreased somewhat from its former great size, much of its 
floor was lifted to dry land high above the ocean, and the rock 



20 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA 

beds farther west were pressed or folded upward into promi- 
nent ridges of the Rocky Mountains. By this change the 
western end of Nebraska became higher than the eastern part 
and the drainage turned to about its present direction. 
We have thus seen how the sediment of shells, clay and sand 
was built into rock beds which in turn were elevated forming 
the land of our state. The surface as it appeared then was 
land, but not soil as we now find it. 

Wash from the Mountains. Not all portions of the ele- 
vated ocean floor became dry land at once; indeed, in the 
northwestern and western counties lakes seem to have existed 
for a long time. Sediment which washed into them from all 
directions formed the Bad Land clays, to be described later. 
Finally, however, the lakes were filled with mud, and the rivers 
which flowed eastward from the mountains across our state, 
carried much sediment, principally sand and gravel, and 
deposited it over all of the central and western counties. 
But what caused the rivers to drop their load of sediment 
there? Geologists tell us that it was the result of a very dry 
climate which then prevailed in western Nebraska. Rivers 
flowing eastward lost their water by evaporation, hence they 
could carry the sand and gravel no farther. They flowed from 
a moist to a dry region and deposited their load where their 
water disappeared by evaporation. The banks of the rivers 
were low and sandy; the streams overflowed right and left, 
gradually lifting the land to an even eastward slope. So the 
thick, sandy surface formations of the west were built high 
and smooth out of sand and pebbles which the rivers carried 
east from the mountains. 

Glacial Invasion. After these thick clay and sand beds 
were formed, a great ice sheet called a glacier pushed south- 
ward over the eastern part of the state. At first the glacier 
advanced across the entire width of the state; then after 



STORY OF THE STRUCTURE 21 

melting back northward it seems to have moved part way 
across again. We do not know just how far west the edge of 
the ice sheet reached in our state, but it extended somewhat 
beyond a line joining the eastern boundaries of Boyd, York 
and Thayer counties. 

What did the glaciers have to do with the structure and 
geography of Nebraska? While moving southward they 
scraped hard on the rocks; the scratches and grooves thus 
made in the bed rock tell us the direction of their move- 
ment. A second result is yet more important, namely, that 
much broken rock, as clay, sand, pebbles and bowlders, which 
accumulated on the glaciers as they plowed their way 
through Minnesota and the Dakotas, was carried into Ne- 
braska and dropped as the ice melted. These materials are 
called glacial drift or Till. Most of the Till thus brought from 
the north is quite unlike the stratified beds upon which it lies 
and the sands with which it is mixed at places. 

As the ice pushed southward across Nebraska it completely 
filled the valleys in its path. It must have formed great 
dams across the rivers which flowed eastward in the state 
and caused them to overflow southward along the west 
edge of the ice sheet. 

The sediment of these east-flowing ri-vers was deposited 
first, in their valleys, filling them, and later along the 
overflow channels at the border of the ice dams, mixing with 
glacial materials which had been carried from the north. 

After the glaciers melted northward to Dakota, the Loess 
was spread over the Till. Just how the Loess was brought to 
its position, we do not know. A part may have been blown in 
by wind, but most of it seems to have been deposited by 
overloaded rivers. It lies on the Till in eastern counties, but 
is usually finer in texture and lighter in color than the glacial 
clay. 



22 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA 

Wc know something now of the structure of the land be- 
neath us antl soniethini;- of its origin. Next we are to study 
Nebraska weather. 



QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 

1. How were the principal rock formations made in the sea? What 
caused them to be stratified? 

2. How do we know that for long periods of time the sea extended 
over what is now Nebraska? 

3. How has Nebraska changed in altitude? In slope, and in direc- 
tions of drainage? 

4. Of what is shale composed? Limestone? Sandstone? 

5. How did rivers deposit thick layers of sediment in western 
Nebraska? 

6. What is a glacier? What countries now contain glaciers? 

7. Tell the story of the ice sheet which once covered a part of 
Nebraska. 

8. By what means was the Loess spread over eastern Nebraska? 

9. Make a collection of the different kinds of sand in your vicinity. 



CHAPTER IV 
WEATHER OF NEBRASKA 

The term weather denotes some condition of the atmosphere 
in which we Hve. We talk much about the weather, yet do 
not ahvays reaUze the important place it holds in geography. 
It influences the growth of plants, the lives of animals and the 
work of man. In order to understand more fully what is meant 
by the weather and how important a factor it is in the geog- 
raphy of our state, it will be necessary for us to learn the 
different elements or kinds of weather of which the Weather 
Bureau makes a continuous record by means of self-record- 
ing instruments. 

Weather Elements. Temperature is one of the most 
important elements. A self-recording instnmient, called the 
thermograph, which writes a continuous record of tempera- 
tures, is used by the Weather Bureau. The types of weather 
based on temperature are hot, warm, cool and cold. The 
mean temperature is the average for a day, month or year. 
The range of temperature is the difference between the 
maximum or highest and the minimum or lowest temperature. 
Are the day and night and the seasonal ranges of temperature 
great or small in Nebraska? 

Winds are due to differences in air pressure. Changes 
in heat and moisture produce differences in the air's weight 
and pressure and thus cause it to move from places of high 
pressure to places of low pressure. The Weather Bureau 

23 



24 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA 

uses a self-recording barometer called the barograph which 
makes a complete record of all changes in pressure. Still 
another instrument, called the anemometer, measures the 
velocity of the wind, while the ordinary weather vane shows 
its direction. 

The types of weather controlled by pressure and wind are 
represented by the extremes, calm and windy. The moving 
air may be either cold or w^arm. This gives us the cold and 
warm winds. 

Humidity refers to the amount of water vapor in the air. 
If mucli moisture is present the humidity is high. li the air 
contains little moisture the humidity is low. When any 
portion of the air contains all the water vapor it can hold, 
it is saturated. Warm air will hold more vapor than cold air. 

People who study the weather find it necessary to measure 
the relative dryness or dampness of the air. Relative humidity 
is the amount of water vapor in the air at any time in propor- 
tion to the amount which it could hold without precipitation. 
The relative humidity is low at dry times and high during 
rainy weather. 

About all we need to observe of this element is whether the 
air is dry or humid. Avery dry, hot air takes much moisture 
from the crops and causes them to wither when there is little 
water in the ground. 

Sunshine and cloudiness are terms which refer to the con- 
dition of the sky with respect to its per cent, of cloudiness. 
Clouds are formed by the cooling of water vapor. They 
vary somewhat in form and kind during the day and 
with the seasons. The dust cloud is of another kind, caused 
by strong winds lifting fine dust into the air. The types of 
weather based on cloudiness are clear, partly cloudy and 
cloudy. 

Precipitation is a general term including rain, hail, sleet 



WEATHER OF NEBRASKA 25 

and snow. The types of weather due to precipitation are to 
be discussed in connection with the cyclone with which they 
are associated. 

For several years the rainfall of our state has been studied 
by the Weather Bureau, where the amount of water that 
falls during each rain is measured in the rain gage. Every 
twenty four hours in which the precipitation is one hun- 
dredth of an inch or more is called a rainy day. It takes 
from ten to twelve inches of snow to produce one inch of water. 

The amount and the distribution of rainfall in Nebraska is 
the state's strongest geographic influence. 

The Cyclone. The weather of Nebraska is said to be 
cyclonic. In other words, it is controlled largely by the 
cyclone, by which we do not mean the small destructive 
tornado, but a large area of air moving in a circular manner 
from all directions towards a center. Air in the center of 
a cyclone is not so heavy as that farther out, so the center 
is called an area of low pressure. Air at a distance from the 
center is heavier, hence its pressure is greater. One law of 
cyclones is that their air moves from ''highs" to "lows," 
which is to say that the heavier air crowds out the lighter air. 
The velocity of the wind varies greatly. In addition to its 
circular motion, the cyclone progresses eastward across 
Nebraska the velocity varying from twenty to thirty miles 
per hour, being greater in winter than in summer. Most 
cyclones are several hundred miles in diameter They pass 
over Nebraska at quite regular intervals of from three to 
four days, taking on an average fifteen to twenty hours 
to traverse the state. From the above explanation we 
should now understand why air moves towards the center 
of a cyclone and why the mercury in the barometer falls and 
rises as a cyclone passes over us. 



26 



THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA 



Weather of the Cyclone. Figure 9 shows the kinds of 
weather that may occur in different parts of a cyclone. Pres- 
sure is indicated by lines called isobars; wind direction by 




Fig. 9. An Outline Showing the Weather of a Cyclone 

arrows; and the cloudiness and rainfall by broken lines and 
shading. 

It is convenient to speak of the different parts of a cyclone 
as quadrants. By drawing a straight line from east to west 
and another from north to south through the center, we 
represent four parts or quadrants. They are the northeast, 



WEATHER OF NEBRASKA 27 

southeast, southwest and the northwest quadrants as shown 
by figure 9. 

A cyclone while passing over Nebraska gives the state 
several kinds of weather. When it is raining or snowing in 
one part of the state it is not necessarily doing so at all places. 
Our state may experience fair weather and storms, rain and 
perhaps snow, all at the same time, but at different places. 
The most noticeable feature of cyclonic weather is its quick 
changes. Each locality is apt to experience a variety of 
weather at short intervals due to the passage of a cyclone. 
The Weather Bureau studies and records the movements 
of cyclones. These enter Nebraska usually from the north- 
west, pass south of east for most of the distance across the 
state and then turn northeastward. An approaching cyclone 
is indicated by a lowering of the mercury in the barometer 
which is due to a decrease in the air's pressure ; as the cyclone 
passes over us the barometer falls and rises with the decrease 
and increase of pressure. 

Cyclonic Winds. Most winds of Nebraska do not blow in 
straight lines; they circle into lows or centers of cyclones. 
We may now ask what causes the wind to change its direc- 
tion? We have observed these quick changes in direction. A 
southeast wind after a short period of calm may give way to 
one from the northwest. Our answer is found in the cyclone, 
into which air is circling from all directions. As a cyclone 
approaches us from the northwest we come at first into the 
southeast quadrant, then into the center, and later into the 
northwest quadrant. During this time we have southeast 
wind, calm, and last a northwest wind. In case the center 
passes somewhat to the north or south of us, the wind does not 
shift to an exactly opposite direction. Thus the cyclone as it 
moves across the state brings changes in the direction of 
wind. 



28 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA 

Temperature Changes. Air moving; into a region of low 
pressure varies in tcmj)erature in different quadrants^ that in 
the southeast being warmest and the northwest coldest. If 
the wind continues several days from the southeast a ''warm 
spell" or warm weather prevails. Occasionally this type of 
weather lingers longer than usual; this occurs when the 
motion of a cyclone is slow. Air of the southeast quadrant 
while passing over a dry region at such a time becomes the 
so-called "hot wind." Then the relative humidity of the 
air is low, and the principal damage to crops is due more to 
the loss of their moisture to the atmosphere, than to any 
heat in the moving air. When a cyclone travels far enough 
so that the northwest winds reach us, the temperature falls 
and colder weather results. 

Clear, Cloudy and Rainy Weather. These alternate in 
the state, and why? We remember that in summer time 
warm, clear weather with wind from the southeast changes to 
cloudy and then to rainy weather, and that clouds usually 
disappear soon after each rain. 

We should know what causes rain in Nebraska. Air 
moving northward from the Gulf of Mexico carries much mois- 
ture to Nebraska and the other states. This warm and 
somewhat moist air enters the southeast quadrant of a cyclone. 
It rises in the low pressure region and overflows eastward. 
The moisture of the ascending air is condensed first into 
clouds, and then into mist and raindrops. The water vapor 
condensing and overflowing to the east of a low pressure 
region causes the rain to fall on that side. A given place in 
Nebraska experiences different kinds of weather in about 
the following order, due each time to the passage of a cy- 
clone: (1) clear weather; (2) increasing cloudiness; (3) rain 
or snow; (4) clearing weather. 



WEATHER OF NEBRASKA 29 

Storms. The state is visited at times by storms, some of 
them destructive, while others exist more in name than in 
reahty, all occurring in some part of a cyclone and usually in 
the southeast quadrant. The thunder storm accompanied 
by more or less lightning is the best known example. It 
occurs either to the east or southeast of a low pressure area. 
Most storm clouds seem to ''come up" from the west or 
northwest; they quickly cover the sky, causing darkness at 
times, and if the wind is strong, may cause alarm, though 
there seldom is any real danger. Lightning does some damage 
but no more here than in adjacent states. The so-called 
"cloudburst" of western Nebraska is a thunder shower in 
which there is a heavy rainfall over a small area within a 
short time. Hail storms appear in all parts of the state, but 
apparently most frequently in the western parts. The results 
of hail storms are well known, by their destroying crops, 
breaking window glass and even killing small animals. As 
a result of such damage many farmers now carry hail insur- 
ance on crops subject to this risk. Fortunately the path of 
such a storm is narrow and the damage small when the 
whole state is considered. 

Dust storms, of which much has been written, occur most 
often in March and April. They are disagreeable, but seldom 
destructive. The sky may cloud over as indicating rain, 
though usually little or no rain falls. If rain forms high 
in the air at such times it is re-evaporated before reaching 
the ground. Dust storms do not occur often in Nebraska; 
spring and summer may pass without a single typical example. 

The tornado, though quite common in certain parts of the 
Mississippi Valley, does not often visit our state. The storm 
cave, or "cyclone cellar" is seldom seen. 

The term "bUzzard" is falling into disuse in weather 
reports. A few years ago the term denoted the following 



30 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA 

conditions: (1) low temperature; (2) strong wind; (3) falling 
snow. Many citizens improperly call every flurry of snow 
a l^lizzard. 

Weather Forecasting. From a study of observations 
telegraphed to Washington and to many stations of the 
Weather Bureau, the weather that may occur within a day 
or two is forecasted.^ The principal factor in forecasting is 
the cyclone. If a storm center, or area of low pressure, 
occurs in eastern Wyoming at a given time, it is apt to move 
as far east as southeastern Nebraska within twenty-four hours 
and to the northeastern part of the United States within a day 
or two more. Since the conditions of the cyclone are known, 
i.e., its rate and direction of motion, wind, rain, snowfall, etc., 
there is reasonable assurance that the weather will occur for 
the succeeding hours as predicted. A storm center may 
pass farther south or north in its route than expected. Also, 
it may move faster or slower than usual. Then the results 
will vary from those forecasted. If cyclones followed routes 
as definitely as do railway trains and if their velocities could 
be as well regulated, many more forecasts would be true. As 
it is, about 83 per cent of the predictions published in our 
state prove correct. 

Forecasting is made with some degree of assurance for one 
or two days ahead, but not for longer periods. The pre- 
dictions published in almanacs are without value. We know 
that it is apt to snow somewhere in oUr state on almost any 
winter day and rain somewhere on each spring or summer day. 
On this account there is wide latitude for a correct guess 
that it will snow or rain at about a certain time, but in 
these mere guesses there is little value. In order to prepare 
for its coming, we should know the time a snowstorm, cold 

1 Moore, Willis L., National Geographic Magazine, June. 1905. pp. 255-305: "This 
is a very concise and valuable article. The home of the National Geographic 
Magazine and Society is in Hubbard Memorial Hall, Washington, D. C." 



. WEATHER OF NEBRASKA 31 

wave, or a rain storm will reach a given place. This cannot 
be foretold by ''long range forecasting.'^ 

Weather Maps. These are published and distributed 
daily by the Weather Bureau to postoffices, schools, railway 
offices, hotels, and citizens wishing them.^ They are pre- 
pared at all of the principal stations of the Weather Bureau 
and issued at the same time from these various places. Maps 
give the weather conditions at 7 a.m. central time of the day 
issued, in all parts of the United States, and forecast the 
probable weather for twenty-four hours or more ahead. 
Such maps are valuable aids to a study of the weather and 
climate and are now used in many schools. 

The maps have their greatest value in a state like Nebraska 
where weather changes are sudden and at times extreme. 

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 

1 . Why do people talk so much about the weather? 

2. What is meant by weather elements? 

3. How can you prove the air is substance and that it has pressure 
and weight? 

4. What is saturated air? 

5. Compare clouds of summer, winter and spring. 

6. Would a bucket do for a rain gage? If not, why? 

7. What is the mean annual rainfall where you live? 

8. Why do we say that the amount of rainfall is a geographic 
influence? 

9. What is meant by a "low barometer"? 

10. Can you, without a barometer, tell when the air is heavy or 
light? 

11. How can you tell in what part of a cyclone you are as it passes 
over you? 

^The maps may be obtained by addressing a request for them 
to Section Director, Weather Bureau, The University of Nebraska, 
Lincoln, Nebraska. The Climatic Charts are obtained from the Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, Washington. These maps and charts may be 
used as a basis for laboratory studies. 



32 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA 

12. With what winds do the snows at your place generally come? 

13. Why is air in the southeast quadrant of a cyclone warmer than 
that of the northwest quadrant? 

14. What is long range forecasting and why is it unreliable? 

15. What causes rain in Nebraska and from where does it come? 

16. How does hot, dry air injure crops? 

17. Does very dry air have any beneficial effects? 

18. During which months do crops grow most and why? 

19. Observe and describe a snow storm, a hail storm, or a rain 
storm. 

20. How is cloudy weather shown on a weather map? Rain? Tem- 
perature? Air pressure? Direction of wind? How can you tell where 
a cyclone is located? 

21. Why should every citizen of Nebraska know how to read a 
weather map? 



CHAPTER V 

CLIMATE OF NEBRASKA 

In this chapter we are to learn about the average weather or 
the cUraate of our state. Climate is the sum total of weather 
for the day, month or the year as experienced dming long 
periods of time. Its elements are about the same as those of 
weather. 

Temperature. Nebraska often experiences sudden changes 
in temperature. The range between day and night also is 
quite marked. The average coldest part of the day is just 
before sunrise, and the warmest between three and five 
o'clock in the afternoon. Further, there is a wide range 
between summer and winter, January being the coldest month, 
and July the warmest. Occasionally during the coldest days 
of winter the thermometer registers 25 degrees below zero, 
while in a few exceptionally cold periods it has reached 
40 degrees below zero. In the hottest days of summer the 
thermometer at times registers 100 degrees or more above 
zero in the shade. 

The average annual temperature is highest in the south- 
eastern part, decreasing to the north and west or with the 
latitude and altitude. The following outline shows the 
average temperature in four parts of the state for January, 
July and the year. 

In the northeastern part (above zero) 
" " northwestern " '' '' 
" " southwestern " " " 
" '' southeastern " " " 

33 





Yearly 


Jan. 


July Average 


19° 


72° 46° 


19 


72+ 46+ 


23 


76 50 


25 


78 52 



34 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA 

These temperatures do not indicate very cold winters or 
unusually warm summers. 

Since the northwestern region is the higher it would also 
be colder than the northeastern if the Chinook wind did not 
pass over it. The northeastern part of the state is as cold as 
the northwestern part, perhaps somewhat colder. 

Nebraska has a long growing season and a long harvest 
season free from frosts. The air is dry and the ordinary 
freeze does little damage to crops. This is especially true in 
the western counties. The average number of days from the 
last frost of spring to the first frost of autumn decreases to the 
northwest. The number in the southeast varies from 155 to 
165 days, while in the northwestern counties it decreases to 
from 130 to 135 days. 

Humidity. The air of Nebraska when compared with that 
of states in the same latitude, but farther east, is rather dry. 
The relati\'e humidity decreases from east to west, with the 
rainfall. The absolute humidity or the entire amount of 
moisture in the air is greatest from about 3 to 4 o'clock in 
the afternoon, while the highest relative humidity is in the 
early morning. There is more moisture in western Nebraska, 
in summer time than is thought. True, the relative humidity 
is usually low at that time, but the absolute humidity is about 
as high as it is in the eastern counties. Water vapor is in the 
ail", but the conditions are not favorable for its precipitation. 

Sunshine and Cloudiness. The state, especially in the 
western part, has an abundance of simshiiie. The cloudiness 
increases eastward, the cloudiest part of the day being the 
afternoon, while the nights, on an average, are clearer than 
the days. There are few fogs, and from the standpoint of 
sunshine and cloudiness the air is most healthful. Persons 
with lung trouble often move into the western counties with 
favorable results. In summer, dry air is not so oppressive as 




35 



36 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASIvA 

warm, humid air; on that account the high heat of western 
Nebraska is noticed less than one would expect. The con- 
ditions here in summer are quite in contrast to the sultry 
atmosphere of some of the southern states. 

Winds. The exact wind velocity is not kno"^Ti. A gauging 
station at Omaha gives an average for ten years of eight miles 
an hour. Another at North Platte shows an average of nine 
miles. This would give a mean for the two stations of eight 
and one half miles, which seems to be lower than the normal 
average of the state. The wind is stronger in the western 
counties than in the east. It is strongest about noon 
and lowest between midnight and the early morning. The 
highest monthly wind velocity is in ^larch and April 
and the lowest in July and August. From October to the 
first of May, the prevailing direction is from the north and 
northwest, while in May and September it varies from north- 
west to southeast. From June to August and during a part 
of September the direction usually is from the south and 
southeast. Though the wind of Nebraska may be somewhat 
stronger than that of Iowa and Illinois, it is not so erratic as 
we sometimes are led to believe. It is utilized throughout 
the state to drive thousands of windmills that pump water. 
The nearly constant breezes of summer render the high 
temperatures less oppressive than they otherwise would be, 
as the body is cooled by rapid evaporation of its perspiration. 
At the same time winds cause excessive evaporation and loss 
of moisture from free water surfaces and from the soil. 

The Rainfall. Records of rainfall have been kept for 
about fifty years, of which time the reports of the last thirty 
years are most reliable ^ The gauging stations are distributed 
generally throughout the state and on that account the 

'Swezey and Loveland, Bull. 45, Experiment Station, University of Nebraska, 
Lincoln, Nebraska. 



CLIMATE OF NEBRASKA 



37 



average of the records must be nearly correct. We now 
know that the precipitation in Nebraska occurs mainly in 
connection with thunder storms which move across the 
country with the cyclones, usually coming late in the day, 
about 7 p.m. The average rainiest part of the day in summer 
is from 5 to 10 p.m. The western counties have an annual 
rainfall of 15 to 20 inches and the southeastern counties 
about 30 inches, this being greatest in the southeastern 

counties and decreas- 
ing gradually to the 
north and west, as is 
shown by figure 10. 
The average annual 
rainfall for the state as 
a whole seems to be 
about 233^ inches. 
This unequal distribu- 
tion of rainfall very 
noticeably influences 
the distribution of 
plants and animals, 
and also has a strong 
control over the agri- 
cultural development of the state as is shown in the following 
chapters. 

The snowfall, which is about one-twelfth of the total rainfall, 
averages 20 inches per year, making nearly two inches of water 
when melted. The fall is greatest in the northeastern counties, 
decreasing to the south and west. Most of the snow comes in 
January and February, and as a rule lies on the ground for a 
short time only, (Figure 11) making sleighing very uncertain. 
Rainfall by Months. The precipitation increases in 
amount from early springtime to June, during which month it 




Fig. 11. Typical Snow Scene in Nebraska 



38 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA 

is the heaviest, then decreases gradually imtil December. 
The average rainfall of June is over five inches in the south- 
eastern part of the state and slightly less than three inches in 
the extreme western part. 

The following outline shows the mean annual rainfall for 
the state by months for the j^ast thu'ty years: 

Inches 

January . 68 

February 0.71 

March 1 . 16 

April 2 . 40 

May 3 . 60 

June 3.93 

July 3.51 

August 2 . 62 

September 1 . 84 

October 1 . 49 

November . 6S 

December . 69 

Total Amount 23.31 

These figures show that fortunately most of the precipitation 
in Nebraska occurs during the growing season. Perhaps a 
better way to state it is to say that the crops grow most 
rapidly in the increasing warmth of spring and summer, 
when they also have the most abundant rains. Records at 
the Weather Bureau stations show that about 69 per 
cent of the state's rainfall comes within the five months 
beginning with April and ending with August. In this respect 
Nebraska, Kansas and the Dakotas are more favorably situ- 
ated than are states farther east because here the moisture 
comes when it is most needed. Yet we should not forget 
that evaporation from a free water surface is greater here than 



CLIMATE OF NEBRASKA 39 

it is farther east. Another noticeable condition is that the 
rainfall decreases at harvest time; while the decrease is 
slight at the time the small grains are harvested, it is more 
apparent when the latest crops of alfalfa are cut and corn is 
gathered. 

Number of Rainy Days. In this connection another 
feature of Nebraska climate may be observed, namely, that the 
rainfall, though somewhat light, comes in moderate showers 
and that there is an average of ninety-one rainy days during 
the year. In any one locality in Nebraska there is an average 
of one rainy day in four. The value of the rainfall is about 
one-fourth inch for each rainy day; rarely does the daily 
rainfall exceed one inch. 

The following outline, from Bulletin 45 of the Nebraska 
Experiment Station, shows the average number of rainy 
days in each month of the year, including the snow fall: 

January 6.3 

February 5.7 

March 6.5 

April , 9.2 

May 12.1 

June r .10.2 

July 9.9 

August 8.5 

September 6.6 

October : 6.0 

November 4.1 

December 6.0 

Total 91.1 

The average amount of rainfall for a rainy day in January 

is . 1 1 inches ; in April . 26 ; in July 0.35; and in October . 25. 

Fluctuations in Rainfall. Experience shows that the 



40 THF GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA 

rainfall of a given month or year is apt to vary from the 
average. The variability for a number of places in Nebraska 
has been calculated for periods of twenty years or more. The 
average annual rainfall of June is 3 . 93 for the state, yet this is 
expected to vary 1.11 inches or 25 per cent and often more. 
The amount of rainfall for a given month or year in Nebraska is 
not, therefore, an absolute certainty, the greatest uncertainty 
occurring during the months of low rainfall. There also is 
a strong probability of a deficiency in the growing seasons, 
especially in July. 

Fluctuations for any one place are apt to be greater than 
for the state as a whole. The variations seem more marked in 
the western counties than in the east and southeast, yet this 
seeming difference may not be well founded. Everyone 
knows the effects of a season of deficient rainfall or drouth. 
These dry times occur over the whole of the Great Plains 
region and the results are well known in every state. 

Cycles of Rainfall. A study of precipitation has shown 
that the state has had alternating periods of wet and dry years. 

In each case the increase and decrease has been gradual. 
These groups of years seem to have followed one another 
with some regularity. Periods of low rainfall have produced 
semi-arid or drouth conditions in the western counties while 
at other times a gradual increase in rainfall has brought about 
humid conditions. The western part of the state has suffered 
much from fluctuations in rainfall, while the eastern counties 
and bordering states have not entirely escaped the unfavorable 
results. The extremes in wet and dry periods seem to have 
come at intervals of from eight to ten years. 

Increasing or Decreasing Rainfall. The precipitation 
records for about fifty years show variations, but no per- 
manent change. The rainfall from 1850 to 1870 seems to have 
averaged 23.55 inches a year, while that of the next twenty- 



CLIMATE OF NEBRASKA 41 

three years was 23.46 inches a year. It is now beUeved that 
cultivation of soil does not cause an increase of rainfall, as so 
many have supposed. Though the precipitation is not 
varying permanently for the better, farmers are learning 
gradually how to adapt their crops and cultivation to the 
conditions as they actually exist. 

If we had lived during the long periods of time when the 
rock beds of Nebraska were forming, several changes in rainfall 
might have been observed. If the rainfall is increasing or 
decreasing now, the permanent change is so slow that it will 
hardly be noticed within a century. 

Nebraska Evenings. To one born and reared in an 
eastern or a southern state in which the humidity is high, 
Nebraska's summer evenings are a source of great enjoyment. 
Usually they are clear and invigorating with perhaps clouds 
enough in the west to produce a beautiful sunset. The wind is 
lower than at noon day. But the change in temperature 
seems most enjoyable, being a relief from the heat of the day. 
It is neither too hot nor too cold, but generally is about right 
for the full enjoyment of walking, horseback riding, driving, or 
any preferred recreation. As the night comes on the tempera- 
ture falls slowly, becoming quite cool, especially in the west- 
ern counties. 

Healthfulness of Climate. Nebraska has an abundance 
of sunshine and an air somewhat dryer than that of most states. 
These conditions as they occur here may be called favorable 
elements. The quick changes in weather are for the most part 
unfavorable, and the same may be said, but to a less degree, of 
the rather marked diurnal and annual ranges in temperature. 

As a whole, Nebraska is known as a healthful state in which 
to live ; but its low death rate and good name are not due to 
the climate alone. We have yet to learn of the drainage and 
the water supply. 



42 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA 

QUESTIOXS AND EXERCISES 

1. How do tho terms "woathor" and "climate" differ in meaning? 

2. Why is not the warmest time of the day at noon? 

3. Why does the mean annual temperature decrease northward and 
westward across Nebraska? 

4. What are some of the unfavorable results of high temperature? 
Of low temperature? Of large range in temperature? 

5. Why are there fewer sleighs in Nebraska than in Iowa? 

G. Why does most snow in Nebraska fall in January and February? 

7. Why do the heaviest rainfall and the growing season come at 
about the same time in our state? 

8. Why do people think the rainfall is increasing? In what ways 
would an increase of rainfall improve the state? How injure? 

9. Which affect agriculture most — hailstorms, cold waves, or low 
rainfall? 

10. What conditions of Nebraska climate do you regard as healthful? 
Unhealthful? 



CHAPTER VI 
GROUND-WATER AND DRAINAGE 

In preceding chapters we read about the state's structure 
and rainfall, both of which have something to do with the 
ground-water. In this chapter we shall find out what becomes 
of the rainfall. Since it does not remain on the ground after 
falling as rain, snow or hail, we should like to learn more of 
what becomes of it. We know that snow and hail melt, form- 
ing water. The water on the ground seems to disappear in 
three ways — some evaporates, part soaks into the ground, 
and the rest of it runs off, forming streams. 

Water in streams, ponds and lakes is called surface water 
by some writers. 

The evaporated water raises the humidity of the air and 
may again become rainfall. 

Surface Storage. In some states much of the rainfall is 
caught and held for a time in lakes. Minnesota is a good 
example of a state with many lakes containing a large amount 
of water, some of which drains out into rivers. In Nebraska, 
a small part of the rainfall finds its way into lakes and ponds, 
but most of these dry up during the summer, the water being 
lost by evaporation and by percolation or sinking into the 
ground. 

Ground-Water. A large amount of Nebraska's rainfall 
soaks into the open textured soils, becoming ground water.' 

1 Professional Paper No. 32, by N. H. Darton; Water Supply Paper No. 70, by G. 
I. Adams; The Geology and Water Resources of Northeastern Nebraska, (in press) 
by G E. Condra; The Geology and Water Resources of Southwestern Nebraska (in 
press), by G. E. Condra, are the general references on Nebraska published by the 
United States Geological Survey. 

43 



44 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA 

The sandy soils are capable of taking in a heavy rain, while 
finer-grained soils absorb a smaller amount of each rain, 
especially when the fall is fast and heavy, but they have the 
capacity to receive and hold much water. 

Each rain moistens the ground at the surface. A part of 
the moisture thus caught is used by growing crops ; part comes 
to the surface as capillary water and enters the air by evapor- 
ation while the rest percolates to lower levels in the ground. 
Everywhere in our state, at some distance below the surface 
of the soil, the little spaces in the ground are completely filled 
with water. In other words, the ground, deep down, is 
saturated with water, forming the saturated zone. The upper 
surface of the saturated zone is called the water table. It 
rises in the ground during rainy periods and falls during dry 
times. In some places it is close to the surface; at other 
places it is one hundred and even three hundred feet below. 
The space between the water table and the surface of the 
ground is called the capillary zone. Water of this zone comes 
either from rains by percolation or from the saturated zone 
by capillary action. 

Amount of Ground- Water. We cannot tell just how 
much water there is underground. The amount is large, 
representing a part of each rain for mau}^ years. Sands and 
gravels when completely saturated hold from 25 to 30 per cent 
of their volume of water. If all of the water contained in the 
soil and underlying rock beds of Nebraska could be placed on 
the surface of the ground, it would make a sea deej^er than 
Lake Su})erior. 

Underground Drainage. The water in this vast under- 
ground reservoir is slowly moving.* The rate of motion is 
not as rapid as that of surface streams; in fact it is too slow 

♦Slichter, C. S. The Motions of Underground Water, Second Ed. (in press). 
United States Geological Survey. 



GROUND- WATER AND DRAINAGE 



45 



for us to say that it flows. However, there is motion or 
drainage through the ground from the high places to the low 
places, i. e., from the high uplands to the valleys and lower 
places. (Figure 12) Water moves through gravels and 
sands faster than through clays and other fine-grained rocks. 
Pervious beds, such as gravel and sand, permit water to 
pass through them quite freely. The fine-grained rocks, do 
not permit rapid percolation, so they are said to be impervi- 
ous. This underground drainage, though important, is not 
16 




Fig. 12. An Ideal Section of a Valley Showing Water Conditions 

No. I, Impervious beds; 2, Saturated ground in upland ; 3, Saturated Alluvium ; 

4 and 5, Water table ; 6, Upland sands and Alluvium above water table ; 7, 

Loess; 8 and 9, Terraces; 10, Flood plain; 11, A spring; 12, 

Shallow flood plain wells ; 13, Lower Terrace or bench well ; 

14, High bench well; 15, Dry well ; 16, Deep upland well 

confined to channels, as is the surface flow. Its vaUey is all 
of the little openings between the particles of soil and the 
bed rock. 

Importance and Use of Ground- Water. In some re- 
spects the ground-water is even more important than the 
rainfall from which it comes. It is much more important 
than the surface water. Ground-water has several uses of 
which we will name only the principal ones. Crops receive 
their supply of moisture chiefly from the ground. The 
capillary water is taken up by plant roots. The springs, the 
shallow wells and the artesian wells are all fed from ground- 
water. 



46 



THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA 



Springs. These liave their source and supply in tlie ground- 
water whieh flows out of saturated rock beds. 

There are thousands of springs in Nebraska, some being 
quite strong. The water in the ponds at the State Fish Hatch- 
eries near South Hend (Figure 13) is supplied by springs, 
coming out of sandstone in a deep ravine. The water is 
carried from its source by i)ipes extending to the various 
])onds ill Avhich are kept the different kinds of fish. ^lany 

large ranches in Ne- 
braska obtahi their 
entire supply of drink- 
ing water and stock 
water from springs. 

Origin and Occur- 
rence of Springs. They 
are found principally 
along valleys where 
pervious beds outcrop 
over clayey or imper- 
vious strata. The 
impervious beds check 
the downward course 
of the ground-water, 
causing it to level up 
in the ground, when some of it spills out or escapes into the 
valleys as springs. The water of most springs comes out of 
sandy layers above clayey beds. At places the springs are 
close together, being found in nearly every ravine. Especially 
is this the case wherever the Pierre shale is exposed below 
sandy soil. The valley then is somewhat like a great well 
into which the ground-water moves from saturated i^ervious 
beds. If the valleys w^ere less deep, there would be fewer 
springs in our state. 




Fig. 13. Spring-fed Ponds at the State 
Fish Hatcheries near South Bend 

Photo by E. H. Barbour 



/ 



GROUND- WATER AND DRAINAGE 



47 



At a few i^laces the water boils or bubbles up intermittently 
from circular or subcircular openings in sancl. One of the best 
examples of this kind is found near the Dismal River in 
Thomas County. (Figure 14) This spring is seven or eight feet 
across, flowing a large volume of water. The ground around 




: : . ... ^»sn t»M 



Fig. 14. A large Boiling Spring in Thomas County 



the spring vibrates or shakes as the water escapes. The 
''Mound Springs" of Johnson county are a form of boiling 
spring, in which the water rises from the center of circular 
mounds, hence the name. In the vicinity of Sterling they 
are called "Kettle Springs. ' ' 

Well Water. We refer here to the ordinary well water of 
the farm or town. A well is a dug, bored, drilled or driven 
excavation extending down to the saturated zone of ground- 
water. This ground-water flows out of the sand or gravel in 



48 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA 

which the well usually ends, filling the well to a level as high 
as the water table. Wells vary in depth because the saturated 
zone of ground-water is not everywhere the same distance from 
the surface of the ground. On this account valley wells 
usually are shallow while those on the uplands are deep. 
Well water is ground-water obtained through an artificial 
opening in the ground. The depth of the water in a well 
depends upon the distance the well extends below the water 
table. 

The depths of wells and the quality and quantity of their 
water are the most important factors for us to consider as we 
study the different parts of the state. 

Strong and Weak Wells. Our state has many strong 
wells, some in which the w^ater can hardly be lowered by 
pumping. In such cases the water moves into the well out of 
coarse sands or gravels which permit it to flow in quite rapidly. 
Most weak wells receive their water from fine sand, through 
which water moves slowly. 

Dry wells have little or no water in them, as the}^ do not 
reach a place in the ground which is saturated. (Figure 9) 
Quality of Well Water. The quality of water accessible 
for drinking purposes is an important consideration for people 
who settle and develop a country. Nebraska as a whole has an 
abundant supply of good well water, yet there are a few places 
where it is difficult to secure good drinking water, the supply 
being either alkaline or saline. The differences are due to 
the fact that ground-water dissolves materials from the 
different formations through which it moves. Wells ending 
in either Pierre shale or in the Niobrara chalk rock give 
a poor (piality of water, while that obtained from the 
Dakota sandstone is medium hard and at a few places saline. 
The upland sands of central and western Nebraska contain 
soft to medium liard water. 



GROUND- WATER AND DRAINAGE 49 

An inferior and often dangerous supply of water results 
from poor care of wells. Water percolating through the 
ground to the well gathers up organic impurities; on this 
account we should not use water from wells located too near 
stables and other sources of pollution. Dug wells should be 
cleaned often in order to insure a supply of water as pure as 
possible, thus guarding against disease. 

Artesian Wells. These are not easily defined. Nearly 
all of them are drilled, not bored or dug. They are small in 
diameter, but usually deep, and the water comes into the 
wells with pressure. (Figure 15) In some cases the pressure 
is very strong, causing the water to flow from the well with 
great force; in others the water rises only a few feet in the 
casing. 

Since artesian wells have considerable importance in Ne- 
braska, we should study the conditions under which they 
are obtained, and their distribution and uses. 

Conditions Giving Artesian Wells. It has been shown that 
rock beds occur below the soil and that they are in a nearly 
horizontal position. These strata extend out into South 
Dakota, Wyoming and Colorado, coming to the surface at 
places in the mountains. (Figure 3) Wherever the pervious 
beds are exposed in the mountains or elevated places they take 
in much of the rainfall. The water, thus caught, chiefly in 
sandstones, moves slowly through them to the lower altitudes 
in Nebraska. Clay beds lying above the sandstones prevent 
the artesian water from escaping to the surface, so the water 
held in position while passing from higher to lower places is 
caused to move under pressure. All that is necessary to 
secure the artesian flow from the imprisoned water is to drill 
and carefully case a hole to the water, when, if the pressure is 
strong enough, it forces upward to and above the surface of 
the ground, forming an artesian well. Most students know 




Fig. 15. The Deep Artesian Well at I.yxch, Nebraska Throwing 
Water 20 Feet in the Air before it was used for Mill Power. 

50 



GROUND-WATER AND DRAINAGE 



51 



how water is supplied from a high standpipe to different parts 
of a town or city and why it comes from faucets with force 
when allowed to escape. In some ways the water of an 
artesian basin resembles that of the water works ; the water is 
held in place by impervious clay beds and thus caused to 
move through the pervious strata instead of through pipes. 
Distribution and Use of Artesian Wells. Many artesian 
wells occur along the 
Missouri from Boyd 
to Dixon counties. 
Passing from west to 
east they vary in 
depth from 923 to 177 
feet. There are more 
than one hundred 
artesian wells in Ce- 
dar County alone, 
affording water for 
domestic purposes, 
stock, irrigation, fire 
protection and power. 
At Niobrara, Knox 

County, a flouring Yig. 16. The Niobrara Flouring Mill 

mill with a capacity operated by Water from an Artesian 

i. . , 1 1 , Well, the Overflow of which shows 

oi sixty barrels a day ^^ ^he Foreground 

is run by the power 

or force of one well 

which flows over 2,000 gallons a minute. (Figure 16) The 

water coming from the well is directed through a nozzle and 

against a small Pelton wheel from which power is transmitted 

to the machinery of the mill. A still larger well at Lynch, 

Boyd County, (Figure 15) is 923 feet deep and 10 inches in 

diameter, flowing over 3,000 gallons a minute. This well is 




52 



THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA 



now used as a source of power for a flouring mill and for 
electric lighting; it also furnishes part of the water for the 
town. 

The porous rock from which comes the artesian water of 
northeastern Nebraska, is the Dakota sandstone; farther 
east in the stnte this rock outcrops along the Missouri River 




Fig. 17. 



The Ponca Ferry Boat. It is used to carry Teams and 
Passengers across the Missouri River. 



and other streams, its water escaping as springs. In Holt 
County and in several other sections of the state there are 
small, shallow artesian basins, the Beaver Crossing and 
Alexandria basins being best known. 

An artesian well two miles west of Lincoln is nearly half a 
mile deep, extending to Carboniferous and yet older beds. 
Wells similar to this, though not so deep, are at Omaha, 
Beatrice, Deerfield, and other places in the eastern counties. 

The Run-off Water. Tliis is the part of the rainfall 
which feeds the streams. We do not know just how much of 
the state's rainfall soaks into the ground and how much runs 



GROUND-WATER AND DRAINAGE 53 

off, but we do know that there are places where the run-off is 
very small. It has been estimated that 90 per cent of the 
rainfall soaks in forming ground-water and that 10 per cent of 
it runs off. Such a statement, though, is little more than a 
guess. Yet when compared with eastern states the run-off in 
Nebraska is light in comparison with the soak-in. 

At flood time some rivers become large and even overflow 
their banks, yet as a whole the surface drainage and surface 
water are less important in Nebraska than we sometimes 
think. 

Streams are fed also by springs which may be called the 
indirect run-off, their water coming from underground. 
Spring-fed streams are more uniform in their flow than those 
supplied by surface water only. 

Streams and Valleys. The run-off water unites from 
many tributaries and forms larger streams. All rivers, large 
and small, begin in about the same way. Portions of Nebraska 
have no streams and valleys, but at most places the surface of 
the land is somewhat broken, showing drainage ways and 
streams, the latter at least for a time after a rain. The land 
surfaces have not always been smooth or rough as they appear 
now in localities. The run- off water roughens the upland, 
especially on steep slopes, and deepens or widens the valleys, 
as we may learn by observation. Valleys in turn serve as 
drainage ways for the water, that part of a valley in which the 
river is located being called the channel of the river. In 
many places the rivers of Nebraska are roughening the sur- 
face, while at a few other places they are building up smooth 
land. In the first case they are destructive and in the latter 
constructive agencies. 

Drainage Directions. By examining a map of the state 
we may observe that the longest rivers flow with the surface 
slope from west to east. This we would expect. But in the 



54 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA 

eastern part of the state the Platte makes a big bend to the 
south and the Bhie Rivers do not flow eastward. Salt Creek 
is a noticeable exception, its course being northeastward. 
The Loup Rivers and the Elkhorn flow in a southeasterly- 
direction for most of their length. We do not know what has 
caused these rivers to take such positions and directions and 
to unite in such a peculiar manner as may be noted from the 
map. 

The valleys and rivers of Nebraska extend in two main 
directions and appear to form two drainage systems — one 
from west to east and the other from northwest to southeast. 



QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 

1. What becomes of the rain which falls on your school ground? 

2. What is surface storage? Capillary water? Ground water? 

3. How does the rain become ground-water? 

4. From what source is ground- water secured for use in your home? 
Is it pure? 

5. Do the wells in your neighborhood differ in depth? If so, why? 

6. Compare stream, spring, artesian and shallow well water as to 
source and purity. 

7. Can you illustrate by drawing or by experiment the principle of 
the spring? Of the artesian well? 

8. Why are most of our springs in valleys? 

9. Why can't we secure artesian wells on high lands? 
\0. What is a boiling spring? 

11. What is run-off water? When is there the most run-ofif at a 
place? Why? 

12. By what means is run-otf water sometimes checked and stored 
for future use? Give an example near your home. 

13. Do any streams begin on your school ground? 

14. As to direction of their drainage, how many systems of valleys 
has Nebraska? Give examples of each system. 



CHAPTER VII 
THE PRINCIPAL DRAINAGE BASINS AND RIVERS 

The area drained by a river or river system is known as its 
basin. It is not so important for us to learn the many places 
where a river heads as it is to study the character of the river 
itself, noting how it is affected by rainfall and evaporation.^ 
We should learn the form and area of each principal drainage 
basin as well as the appearance of land within it. Some rivers 
occupy deep, narrow valleys; others are in wide, shallow 
valleys. Some valley-slopes contain exposed ledges of rock 
while others are completely covered with grass and trees. 

The Missouri River. This, our largest river, is widely 
known as the "Big Muddy. '^ It meanders over 400 miles 
along the eastern border of the state. It is wide, deep and 
swift; but it has a fall of just a little less than one foot per 
mile. 2 The highest waters come in March and June or with 
the spring rains and with the run-off from melting snow in the 
mountains of Montana, Wyoming and Colorado. The Mis- 
souri drains very little of Nebraska except through its prin- 
cipal tributaries, the Niobrara, the Platte and the Nema- 
has. At places the land at the crest of the bluffs slopes away 
from the river. 

The river cuts hard on its right bank at a number of points, 
producing high bluffs, at the same time leaving most of the 
bottom land on the opposite side of the stream. The varying 

1 Stephens, J. C. Hydrography of Nebraska (in press) U. S. G. S. This paper 
gives the gaugings of the principal rivers. 

2 Study Elk Point, Omaha, Atchison, Kansas City and Jefferson City topo- 
graphic maps. 

55 



56 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA 

appearance of these bluffs along the river is due principally to 
different kinds of rock outcropjiing in the valley. 

The river water, though turbid, is quite pure for drinking 
purposes when the sediment is removed. Omaha and other 
cities and towns near the stream obtain their water supply 
from this source. 

Besides its use as drinking and stock water the river has 
some importance in transportation and in A-ielding fish. 
Steamers in the vicinity of Yankton and Sioux City carry 
fuel, grain and live stock. Small boats known as ferries 
operate at or near a number of river towns (Figure 17) without 
bridges. Eight large bridges span the Missouri along the 
eastern border of Nebraska. During the coldest times of 
winter the ice of the river is used as a roadway above Sioux 
City, when heavy loads of wood and grain are hauled l)}^ 
means of teams and sleds. 

The Niobrara River. This, the ''Running Water," is one 
of our swift streams. Its volume of water ranges from 500 
to 1,000 cubic feet per second at Valentine and from 1,000 
to 2,000 second-feet^ at Niobrara. The river is swift, usually 
shallow, and little affected by storm water except near its 
mouth. It is supplied with water from many spring-fed 
streams issuing from ravines and canyons, one of the best- 
known of which is liOng Pine Canyon. Nearly all of the 
tributary streams are weak, the Snake, Keya Paha and 
Verdigris being most important. 

The main valley is not large, averaging narrow and about 300 
feet deep below the uplands. Since the valley-bottom is narrow 
it contains little farm land. In the vicinity of Valentine the 
trunk valley is bounded by steep sides and narrow canyons, 
so it may be called a young valley. 

3 The term "second-feet" is used to denote a flow of one cubic foot of water per 
second. Most rivers are gauged, i. e., their flow is measured. 



THE PRINCIPAL DRAINAGE BASINS AND RIVERS 57 

The river affords water for stock, domestic, and irrigation 
purposes; it also can be used for water power when needed. 

In all there are about fifteen beautiful waterfalls in this 
drainage basin, the best-known being the Snake River, 
Schlagle, Stinard, Parry and Arikaree falls. 





'' --"'^^^^HhI 










l-::.-^-^: 



Fig. 18. Snake River Fall 

Photo by R. A. Emerson 

Snake River Falls. The larger fall in this river is located 
about 25 miles southwest of Valentine, and is not easily 
reached. (Figure 18) It is the largest in Nebraska. Snake- 
River at this point is about 60 feet wide, flowing in a 
narrow, deep canyon and falling some 20 feet over a hard 
ledge of rock. Farther up stream is another fall said to be 
even more beautiful than this, though not so large. 



58 



THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA 



Schlagle Fall is in some respects Nebraska's most beauti- 
fully situated fall. (Figure 19) It is located in Schlagle 
Creek, ten or eleven miles south of Valentine. The stream 
flows in a deep canyon thickly studded with pine trees, and 
the water is cool, clear, pure, and the home of trout Willows 




Fig. 19. Schlagle Fall 

Photo by E. H. Barbour 

and other smaller tree growths hug the water's edge, while 
above and beyond the canyons are table-land and sand-hill 
areas. The water fall is about 25 or 30 feet across and 10 feet 
high, including a small rapids. This is a favorite outing 
place for the people of Valentine. 

Stinard Falls are in a small ravine near the Niobrara 
river, about six miles below Valentine. The larger faU is 



THE PRINCIPAL DRAINAGE BASINS AND RIVERS 59 

nearly 40 feet. The smaller fall is also known, as the Bristol 
Fall. 

Sears Falls, large and small, are in a ravine near the 
Stinard road 9 miles down the valley from Valentine. The 




Fig. 20. Artkaree Fall, the First Leap Showing 

Photo by E. H. Barbour 



larger fall is 12 feet high and is the most beautiful of any in 
the vicinity. 

Parry Falls are about a mile west of the Berry Bridge and 
one mile from the Sears Falls. Each, though narrow, is be- 



60 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA 

tweeii 80 and 90 feet high. One, quite hitlden by thick 
shrubbery, is by some called the Wonder Fall. 

Arikaree Fall is the state's highest and best-known fall. 
It is in the Niobrara valley 11 miles east of Valentine, where 
the Niobrara R iver occupies a canyon-like course and is locally 
called the Smith fall. In a ravine just above is a small spring- 
fed stream which tumbles into the valley below as a beautiful 
ribbon of water. The fall is about 90 feet, consisting of two 
leaps, the first (Figure 20) being the greater. There are 
several other falls in this vicinity, though most of them are 
small, occurring principally in the ravines known as the ''Seven 
Sisters." 

In a ravine twelve miles northwest of Wood Lake is the 
Harvey Fall, which is not easily reached, hence little is 
known of it. 

The Platte River. In some respects this is the most 
important river of Nebraska ^ It heads by two branches, 
but at many places in the Rocky Mountains where it gathers 
an abundance of water in the springtime. The north branch, 
(Figure 21), called the North Platte, is the stronger stream; 
it is used extensively and profitably for irrigation. The 
Lodge Pole is the longest tributary of the South Platte in our 
state. 

A noticeable feature of the Platte River is that only a few 
tributaries enter it from the south in Nebraska, Salt Creek 
being the largest affluent received from that direction. Among 
the important tributaries on the north are the Loups and the 
Elkhorn. The amount of water in the Platte River in our 
state varies greatly with the seasons and with the wet and dry 
years. During the summers with low rainfall when evapor- 
ation is excessive and a limited amount of water is supplied by 

■* Stufly Denver, Scotts Bluff, Ogalalla, North Platte, Kearney, Grand Island and 
Fremont topographic maps. 




Fig. 21. North Platte River and Bridge near Gering, Scotts 
Bluff County. The River Overflows its Bottom Land in 
THE Springtime, but Decreases in Size during Summer 

Photo by H. A. Mark 




Fig. 22. Platte River and Loess Bluffs near Fremont. Sand 
Bars Come into View as the Water Lowers. The North- 
western Railroad Bridge Shows in the Distance 



61 



02 THE PRINCIPAL DRAINAGE BASINS AND RIVERS 

ci few weak tributaries, the channel becomes dry throughout 
much of its length. The only water present then is that 
which moves slowly just below the surface in the sandy 
flood i)lain\ The river at flood-time is broad, shallow, and 
heavily loaded with sand. (Figure 22) In some places it 
flows as a single channel at low stages, but at other places it 
spreads out as interlacing streams among sand bars and low 
sandy islands. 

Plate II shows how the Platte ^'alley varies in width and 
in other respects at different points. In the western counties 
it is wide and deep, while across Deuel and Keith counties it 
narrows somewhat, but expands again in Lincoln County. 
From this i)oint to Saunders County the river is building up 
its bed and the valley is less deep, but wdde, including rich 
farming land. From the A-icinity of Ashland to the ]\Iissouri it 
narrows and the slopes steepen; here, also, hard rock outcrops 
in the bordering slopes. The river and valley have a fall of 
about 3,000 feet while traversing Nebraska. The grade is 
greatest in the western part of the state w^here the river is 
sinking its way in the High Plains Region. 

Salt Creek, a tributary from the southwest, takes its name 
from the saline matter which it receives from certain salt 
flats, the best known of which are two miles west of Lincoln. 
Several tributary creeks flow from different directions to the 
Lincoln basin'', from which a Inroad mature trunk valley 
drains northeastward to the Platte River. The union of so 
many streams at Lincoln and the northeasterly course of the 
main valley are the peculiar features of this tributary basin 
of the Platte. Salt Creek usually overflows its bottom lands 
at the time of continued heavv rains. This overflow is caused 

sSliohter.C. S. The Underflow of the South Platte, (in press) U. S. G. S. 
'Lincohi and Fremont topographic maps. 




Fig. 23. Ice Gorge in the Platte River at South Bend. The 
Rock Island Railroad Bridge Shows in the Distance 




Fig. 24. Railroad Bridge at South Bend Damaged by Ice Gorge 

63 




Fig. 25. Middle Loup IIiver j;l:t\vken Thedford and Halsey 



^"mm 






Fig. 26. Dismal River in Thomas County. Ranch Buildings 
AND Sand Hills show in the Back Ground 



64 



THE PRINCIPAL DRAINAGE BASINS AND RIVERS 65 

by its meandering course and by the union of several tribu- 
taries in the Lincoln basin. 

Ice Gorges. The first warm days of March melt the 
snow rapidly in the Platte basin. This water enters the 
river and causes most of the ice to lift, break up, and begin 
its motion down-stream. 

The ice overloads the shallow stream, where sandbars and 
bridges impede its free run, causing it to gorge at these places. 
(Figure 23) Sometimes the gorges do great damage to farm 
property and interfere with railway traffic. (Figure 24) 
Few railroad or wagon road bridges of the Platte have escaped 
damage by the ice gorges. 

The Loup System. The streams of this group were named 
from a tribe of Indians. The system is composed of the 
South, Middle, (Figure 25) and North Loup rivers, and Clear 
and Beaver creeks. They head in the Sand Hill Region 
and flow nearly parallel in a southeasterly direction to the 
Platte River, but all unite before joining the latter. The 
cause of the rivers' uniting in this particular manner is not 
definitely known. It seems that at one time they entered 
the Platte separately and that they united or looped together 
later. They are fed by many springs in the sand hills, hence 
change little in size during dry and wet seasons. Dismal 
River (Figure 26), a branch of the Middle Loup, has few 
tributaries, its water coming almost entirely from springs. It 
is a stream which rises and falls only a few inches during a 
century in its sand-hill course. It carries a heavy load of 
silt and sand near its head waters but runs clearer farther 
down stream. The valley widens and becomes marshy above 
Dunning. 

The Loup rivers afford much water for stock and the 
supply also is used for domestic purposes, irrigation and 



. * ' ' 




/} 1", •• \, 






nm^v^^ii^^ 


V 


5iJ^KT _ . ^ '-ii««tS 


-' ■■.■..■.■:^^^-x:: 



Fig. 27. Y. M, C. A. Camp near Milford. Photo by A. J, Coats 




Fjg. 28. \\'ater Power and Mill at Beatrice 
66 



THE PRINCIPAL DAINAGE BASINS AND RIVERS 67 

power. At places, notably above Columbus, ice of the Loups 
gorges badly, damaging bridges and other property. 

There are two large falls in Dismal River, south of Mullen, 
one in the North and the other in the South Fork, easily 
reached by railroad and team. A larger but less accessible 
fall is located in the North Loup River in Cherry County. 

The total area of the Loup basins above Columbus is 13,542 
square miles and the volume of water poured into the Platte 
averages 2,000 to 4,000 second feet. It runs as low as 1,300 
and as high as 10,000 second feet. Usually the valleys of 
these rivers are wide, with gradual slopes in which rock beds 
are exposed at few places'. 

The Elkhorn River. A glance at a map of Nebraska will 
show the significance of the name of this, the ' 'Horned Deer 
river," the main branch of which heads among the sand hills 
in Rock County. From Holt County to the Platte there is 
less sand. The Logan and other tributaries in the northern 
part of the basin gather water from an extensive area 
extending close to the Missouri River. 

In most respects the Elkhorn River resembles the Loups, 
yet it has a greater tendency to overflow. It changes its 
course readily, forming cut-off lakes. The shallow channel is 
in a broad flood plain bordered by gradual valley slopes.^ 
The river is swift and clear, except at flood time, when it 
carries a heavy load of sediment. The area of the basin above 
Arlington is about 5,980 square miles. The amount of water 
poured into the Platte by this river ranges from 1,000 to 2,000 
second feet ordinarily, though at times it runs as low as 400 
or as high as 4,000 second feet. 

The river water is used for stock, power, domestic purposes, 

"David City, Stromsburg, St. Paul and Loup topographic maps. 
**Fremont topographic map. 



68 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA 

and in a limited way for irrigation. The stream contains a 
good many fish. 

The Blue Rivers. These are the Big Blue and the Little 
Blue.* They are among Nebraska's most beautiful streams. 
They are supplied both by spring and run-off water. Some 
of their smaller tributaries head very near to the Platte. 

The valleys contain much fertile bottom land which at 
places is quite sandy and easily eroded and flooded. 

There are many attractive places along the Blue rivers 
which are visited in summer by camping parties. (Figure 27) 
The fall of these streams is used for power more than that of 
the other rivers of Nebraska. (Figure 28) 

The Republican River. This river heads in the High Plains 
of Colorado, hence is without a mountain course. It enters 
Nebraska by two forks and is joined by both north and south 
tributaries along a course of about 250 miles in this state 
before turning southward into Kansas. The principal 
tributaries are the South Fork, Frenchman, Medicine, 
Sappa and the Prairie Dog. These are weak streams for the 
length and size of their valleys. The longest tributaries on 
the north head close to the Platte. 

The Republican River is shallow and relatively wide. Its 
bed is sandy, bordered by low, sandy banks in a valley bottom 
ranging from one to three miles in width. ^" At places sand 
bars and low, sandy islands occur in the channel. The valley 
slopes contain sand. Loess, sandstone, Pierre, and Niobrara 
chalk rock, but usually not all at one place. The stream is fed 
by springs (Figure 29) and storm water. In summer much of 
the flow is lost by evaporation, and during that time the 
river becomes dry in places. This condition is most apt to 
prevail above the spring-fed tributaries in the western counties. 

"David City and Hebron topographic maps 
^"Arapahoe, Red Cloud, and Superior topographic maps. 




Fig. 29. One source op the Republican River. It is a Spring at 
THE Edge of the Sand Hills in Dundy County 




Fig. 



30. Republican River at Orleans. A Dam and a Flouring 
Mill Show in the Distance 



69 



70 



THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA 



The river rarely ceases to flow in the vicinity of Red Cloud and 
Superior. 

The area of this basin above Superior is about 22,347 
square miles. The gaging at Superior usually is 500 to 1,000 
second feet, though it may decrease to less than 100 at low 
water stages and rise to 10,000 second feet at flood times. 




N'ETA Fall int the Frenchman River 



The river is too shallow^ for boating, yet it affords some fish- 
ing. Its principal uses are for stock water, power (Figure 30) 
and irrigation. 

The Frenchman River tributary drops over a hard ledge of 
rock at Wauneta, producing a beautiful fall of between seven 
and eight feet. (Figure 31) The stream is about 40 feet 
wide and changes little in volume during the year. The 
power of a part of this fall is used to run a flouring mill. 



THE PRINCIPAL DRAINAGE BASINS AND RIVERS 71 



QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 

1. Why do rivers differ so much in size and flow? How and why 
do valleys differ? 

2. At what places along the Missouri River are the bluffs steep? 

3. Why is the Missouri River not used for water power in 
Nebraska? 

4. Why are there but few bridges across the Missouri? 

5. Describe the ferry boat shown in figure 17. 

6. Compare the Missouri and Niobrara rivers. Compare their 
valleys. 

7. Why does a heavy rain cause thaNiobrara to rise but little? 

8. Why are there several water falls in the Niobrara basin and 
none in the Platte River in Nebraska? 

9. Which of Nebraska's waterfalls would you like most to visit? 
Why? 

10. How many miles does the Platte flow in our state? 

11. When do sandbars show plainest in a river? 

12. Compare the Platte at high and low water stages. What causes 
it to rise and fall? 

13. Why and how are rivers gaged? What is underflow? 

14. What rivers of Nebraska overflow most? Tell why. 

15. How and where do ice gorges affect transportation? 

16. Which rivers of Nebraska are used most in irrigation? Why? 

17. Why is more power used from the Blue rivers than from other 
streams in Nebraska? 

18. Compare the Elkhorn and Loup rivers. 

19. Compare the Platte and the Republican rivers. 

20. How does the Republican differ from the Niobrara? 

21. Is there a water power near your home? If so, study it and 
learn how it is operated. Compare figures 28, 30 and 31. 



CHAPTER VIII 
THE LOESS REGION 

We shall next study the four provinces or topographic 
regions of our state.* The Loess Region ceceived its name 
from its surface formation and soil, the Loess, which is not 
much less than 100 feet thick at places. 

Position and Area. This region occupies a little more 
than the southeast half of the state (Plate II) and extends into 
Iowa, Missouri and Kansas. The northwest edge of the 
region merges irregularly into the sand hills and extends 
southwestward to Colorado. The Loess forms high terraces 
in the Republican Valley in Dundy County, but eastward 
from Benkelman it spreads out and caps the uplands. 

The area of the Loess Region in Nebraska is about 42,500 
square miles. 

Loess Plains. These are the least eroded parts of the 
region. (Figure 32) They are usually smooth, but here and 
there are shallow drainage- ways and sHght knoll-like elevations. 
In some places the surface contains shallow, undrained basins 
filled by the rainfall at wet- weather times. Most of these 
small lakes dry up entirely during summer. The lakes occur 
principally in York, Fillmore, Clay and Phelps counties. 

The landscape on the Loess Plains is unusually broad, only 
the curve of the earth hiding distant objects from view. We 
may ask, are these some of the 'level lands' of Nebraska? 
Yes, citizens often speak of them in that way; but there is 
very little of what is really level country. The land here is 

♦ Study Omaha, Lincoln, Ell» Point, Wahoo, Fremont, Grand Island, Kearney, 
Hastings, Superior, Red Cloud and Arapahoe topographic maps. 

72 



THE LOESS REGION 73 

smooth and even; it slopes eastward with a grade of from 6 
to 10 feet a mile, hence it is not level. 

The Loess Plains show well about Cornlea (Platte County), 
David City, York, Dorchester, Fairmont, Hastings and 
Holdrege. We should locate these places on plate I and 
also study the relief map (Plate II) to see what counties in the 
Loess Region are smoothest. 

Broad Valleys. The name Nebraska means "broad 
water." The broad rivers are in broad valleys which are 





■ 






P^^g^ 


_^ 


M 






■ 


jH 




^^^5 


^^B 


m 


i 




i 


1 


^^^f^ .1*;-'. ^-„, • 




1 


1 


1 



Fig. 32, At the Edge of the Loess Plains. Run-off Water 
Erodes the Surface at Rainy Times, Making the Little 
Trench Longer, Deeper and Wider. Photo by U. G. Cornell 

a noticeable feature of the Loess Region. These valleys are 
but so many trenches in the upland. The principal valleys 
are the Missouri, Repubhcan, Little Blue, Big Blue and 
those of the Platte system. The relief map (Plate II) shows 
the position, width, sides and something of the depth of each 
valley. 

Bottom and Bench Lands. The broad valleys have 
extensive bottom lands or flood plains. The Platte bottom 
is so wide in places that one cannot see both sides of the val- 
ley from one position. Most bottom lands are fairly smooth 




Fig. 33. Ideal Section of a valley showing its Flood Plain and 

Terraces 




Fig. 34. Republican Valley Terrace, Southwest of Superior 

74 



THE LOESS REGION 75 

and their soils fertile and desirable, varying in texture from 
sandy to clayey. Such soils were deposited or made by the 
rivers. 

These valleys also show alluvial benches or terraces (Figure 
33) rising somewhat above their flood plains, and called the 
second and third bottoms. In places they resemble stair- 
steps, lying one above another, forming the valley sides, only 
the lowest of which become flooded. The terraces represent 
portions of old, high flood plains not yet destroyed by the 
down-cutting rivers. (Figure 34) At places where the 
Platte is overloaded with sediment it is building up its flood 
plain and thereby covering the terraces. 

Todd Valley. This valley extends across Saunders 
County from between Morse Bluff and Cedar Bluffs to the 
Platte bottom northeast of Ashland. ^ It is 28 miles long, 
from six to eight wide, and quite smooth except for a few 
shallow drainage ways. It is 80 or 90 feet higher than the 
Platte at the north and about 40 feet above it at the south 
end, and located between higher lands both east and west. 

It is not known just how the valley was formed. The 
Platte River may have flowed through it formerly, but if so 
it was a very long time ago. 

Canyons. These are the deep, steep- walled ravines of the 
western states. They are deepened and lengthened by the 
run-off water flowing to the trunk streams, some of their beds 
being 100 and even 200 feet below the uplands. Most of the 
larger canyons of this region are in the western part, where 
they are usually near together with flat-topped divides 
between them. One of the best known examples is Trail 
Canyon, four miles east of Haigler, Dundy County. It is 
about 3 miles long and has a grade or fall of 300 feet. At the 

2 Fremont and Wahoo topographic maps, also An Old Platte Channel, by G. E. 
Condra, American Geologist, p.p. 361-369, June number, 1903. 



76 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA 

time of a heavy rain, water rushes down the canyon with 
tremendous force, carrying away a vast amount of sedi- 
ment. 

The canyons are very young valleys in development, but 
not in years. 

Rock Terraces. There are places in the region where the 
former Loess covering has been carried away by streams which 
are now wearing on the bed-rock. In valleys which contain 



Fig. 35. Diagram Illustrating the Origin and Occurrence of 
Rock Terraces. The Strong Limestones at 1, 2 and 3 stand 
OUT AS Terraces 

strong and weak rock beds in their sides, the more resistant 
strata, by eroding slower than the others are caused to stand 
out prominently as ledges, some soil-covered and others 
bare. These forms, called rock terraces, are best shown in 
the Big Nemaha Valley where at places they extend for miles 
in the valley-sides. (Figure 35) They are arranged like 
great benches or steps resembling alluvial terraces and are 
best seen from high places. 

River Bluffs. Where a stream cuts hard on either 
side of its valley, it forms steep banks popularly known as 
bluffs. There are several kinds of bluffs in the Loess Region, 
notably the Loess bluffs about Omaha, Fremont (Figure 22), 



THE LOESS REGION 77 

and at many places along the Republican. Some of these 
exceed 100 feet in height. From the bluffs near Ponca, 
which are composed of I.oess and Till above and rock beds 
below, one may see far into South Dakota and Iowa, with the 
broad Missouri in the foreground. At places the Niobrara 
chalk rock, the Dakota sandstone and the Pennsylvanian and 
Permian limestones form prominent bluffs which might be 
more properly called escarpments. The first-named occur 
along the Missouri in Boyd, Knox and Cedar counties (Fig- 
ure 6), and along the south side of the Republican Valley 
in Franklin and Webster counties. They are usually steep 
and vary from 80 to 200 feet in height. 

The rusty Dakota sandstone has been eroded into prominent 
ridges or escarpments along the Little Blue River in the 
southern part of Jefferson County, and at different places 
along the Missouri River between Ponca and Tekamah. Its 
escarpment is well-defined along the Platte between Ashland 
and South Bend. (Figure 5) 

Ledges of Pennsylvanian limestone outcrop prominently 
along the lower Platte (Figure 4), the Missouri and its prin- 
cipal tributaries. The Permian limestone escarpment in 
the Big Blue Valley east of Wymore contains flinty ledges 
which rise from 75 to 100 feet above the river. In Jefferson 
and Thayer counties the Greenhorn (Benton) limestone 
forms light colored ledges high in the valley-slopes. 

Ionia Volcano. A well-known bluff in the northwestern 
part of Dixon County has received this name. It was formed 
by the Missouri River cutting into thick beds of Benton shales. 
The bluff is over 150 feet high (Figure 36) and quite precip- 
itous. The clays and shales composing it contain iron sul- 
phide, a bronze colored mineral often found in coal. This 
mineral is oxidized or changes chemically in the presence of 
water, and at the same time some heat is produced. The 



Fig. 36. The so-called Ionia Volcano. The Heated Part of the 
Bluff is at X 




Fig. 37. Reduced Loess Hills in Saunders County 
78 



THE LOESS REGION- 79 

bluff is so warm that snow falling upon it usually thaAvs very 
soon but no volcanic materials have been thrown from this 
so-called volcano which was observed and described as early 
as 1804, by Lewis and Clark. There are similar hot banks, 
usually called ''burning bluffs " or " burning mountains'' in 
other states. 

Several years ago a reporter from a prominent newspaper 
built a fire at a convenient place on this bluff and then photo- 
graphed the smoke and flame which arose. That picture 




FiG. 38. Pierre Hills Along the Missouri in Boyd County. These 
Hills are covered with Clay Soil which supports a Thick 
Growth of Prairie Grass. 

was used as evidence that Ionia Volcano had become active. 
Hilly Lands. Thus far we have described the plains, 
the valley bottoms, canyons, and the bluffs of the Loess 
Region. Of these, the first two kinds named are smooth 
lands and the last two rough. Another type of surface 
occupies much of the eastern part of the Loess Region lying 
near the larger valleys, namely, the hilly lands. Here also is 
the heaviest rainfall and the greatest run-off. At places the 
streams have made not only canyons and bluffs, but have 



80 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA 

long since reduced most of them to hills. The flat- topped 
divides which formerly separated the small valleys have been 
washed away; the narrow gorges have been widened into 
small valleys, the sides of which the small tributary streams 




Fig. 39. Cat Steps on Loess Hills near Cedar Creek, Cass County 

carved and reduced into thousands of forms commonly called 
Loess hills (Figure 37) ; but, to be more exact, we should recog- 
nize that the term ''hill" is falling into disuse. It was a 
change from young to mature valleys. Where the Loess has 
been entirely worn away, hills have been carved out of the 
underlying formations. Of these the glacial hills prevail at 



THE LOESS REGION 



81 



places in Lancaster and other eastern counties. Erosion of 
the Pierre formation has produced the billowy ^ Tierre slopes'' 
and the 'Tierre hills" so common in Boyd (Figure 38), 
northern Holt and Knox counties. Near the Missouri River 
in Ejiox County there is an aggregation of such rounded hills 
called the ' 'Devil's Nest. " 

Loess Slips. These, locally known as ''cat steps/' are 
due to the creeping or slipping of the Loess in hillsides. Since 









lij^*'", i;^.^^i: ■■ -M 



Fig. 40. A Bowlder Area near Endicott, Jefferson County. This 
Land is not Easily Flowed 

the Loess is even-grained, it breaks or separates easily in an 
up-and-down direction. A view similar to that shown in 
fiigure 39 may be seen at many places in the rougher parts of 
the region. We observe in the view that the surface of the 
slope looks like steps and that the top of each slip is fiat. The 
distance from one slip to another is about as far as a cat can 
jump, hence the name. These slips teach us that the Loess 



creeps readily to lower levels in a 
underlying rock. 



valley, concealing the 



82 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA 

Land Slides. At many places in the valleys of Boyd, 
Knox and Holt counties large masses of the Pierre shale 
break loose from the valley-sides and slide to lower levels. 
The slides are sometimes quite large, being 100 or 200 feet 
in length. 

Smaller land sHdes occur in bluffs and deep railroad cuts 
where the Loess overlies glacial clay, the former slipping 
down over the latter where the ground has been thoroughly 
moistened by spring rains. 

Bowlder Areas. At a few places in Nebraska glacial 
bowlders lie close together on the surface of the ground, the 
largest areas being in Jefferson County, one of them located 
southeast of Endicott (Figure 40) extending close to Steele 
City, and covering several sections of land. Som,e of the 
other areas are near Falls City, Humboldt, Tecumseh, Beatrice, 
Lincoln, and north of Hartington. Most of the bowlders are 
granite, sandstone, pink quartzite and limestone, which were 
carried to their positions by glaciers. They occur quite 
generally in the Till of Nebraska, but most on hill-sides, 
because there is where their former covering of Loess and 
finer glacial material has been carried away by the run-off 
water. 

Summary of Conditions. The soils of the Loess Region 
are generally fertile, deep and easily tilled, even on the hills 
and uplands. There are several kinds of soil however, each 
having a somewhat local distribution, except the Loess which 
forms the subsoil of most of the uplands, and the alluvial 
soils which make up the bottom lands. 

The annual rainfall is sufficient for crop production in the 
eastern part, but only 17 inches in the west. The run-off is 
greater in the east than in the w^est. Usually the well water 
is good and near the surface, the depth in the uplands increas- 
ing westward. Many wells dug through Loess are not walled. 




Fig. 41. Trees following the Water Courses. Photo by U. G. 

Cornell 




Fig. 42. Bur-oaks moving Into the Sandy Slopes near De Witt 



83 



84 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA 

Trees grow well over most of the region, except on the Loess 
Plains in the western counties. The native timber follows 
the waterways (Figure 41) usually. It is composed of 
cottonwoods, oaks, (Figure 42) elms, willows, ash, box elders, 
walnut and other related species. Saw-mills are operated at 
a few places. 

Pasturage is confined principally to the wet flood plains, 
to the roughest lands, and to the dryer uplands. Grass grows 
thick and high in the eastern part which is the prairie country, 
and short in the west. 

The principal building materials are clay, sand and lime- 
stone. The great lack is in fuel. The region is richest agri- 
culturally in the eastern part where grain crops are raised in 
great variety. The region is the most thickly settled province 
of Nebraska. It is well improved both in the country and in 
the city. 

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 

1. What are level lands? 

2. How and where are smooth lands made rough? 

3. What is the widest valley in the Loess Region? The deepest? 

4. On which side of the Platte is the rougher land? Of the Republi- 



can 



5. Where are terraces found, and how were they formed? 

6. What kinds of bottom land are near your school? 

7. What kinds of bluffs or escarpments have you observed and 
studied? 

8. Are there any hilly lands near your home? If so, were they 
formed by streams or by winds? Are the hills changing now in form or 
in size? 

9. Should we call Ionia bluff a volcano? 

10. How do rough lands interfere with farming and traffic? 

11. Why are there no bowlder areas in western Nebraska? 

12. Where in the Loess Region do the following grow best and why, 
^grass, Hrees and ^crops? 

13. Which part of the region is most thickly settled? Why? 



CHAPTER IX 
THE SAND HILL REGION. 

Sand hills occur in the Great Plains from Minnesota to New 
Mexico, the best- known region being in Nebraska.^ This 
might more properly be called the sand-dune region. If we 
were describing its soils^ it should be known as the dune-sand 
region. 

Position and Area. This region of Nebraska is a broad, 
irregular province, at places poorly defined.^ It extends 
across the central and west-central portions of the state from 
northeast to southwest (Plate II), a few small sandhill areas 
lying outside the main region. One of the largest of these is 
south of the Platte at Kearney; others are near St. Paul, 
along the Loup River northwest of Grand Island, and in 
Lincoln, Chase, Perkins and Dundy counties. 

The area of the region is about 18,000 square miles, though 
much of the surface is free from sand hills. 

Structure and Origin. Usually the region is covered by a 
loosely compacted, fine-grained, wind-blown sand. Near its 
borders certain sandy ridges contain coarse gravel and even 
pebbles. 

The sand hill formation is not thick, rarely exceeding 100 
feet, while over much of the region it is considerably less. 
Beneath the wind-blown sands, beds of loosely compacted 
stratified sands outcrop in most of the valleys in the region. 

'Darton, N. H. Professional Papers, Nos. 17 & 32. U. S Geol. Survey; Bar- 
bour, E. H. Nebraska Geol. Survey, Vol. 1. 

^Study Chappell and Browns Creek topographic sheet. 

85 



86 



THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA 



Without doubt the saud of the dunes or hills was blown into 
its present forms, and similar changes are taking place at 
the present time. The region, then, is not very old. Most of 
the sediment now forming the hills was blown from the easily 
eroded underlying formations. The distance which it was 
carried varied from a few feet to several miles. The Sand Hill 
Region was formed principally by northwest winds blowing 




Fig. 43. A Typical Sand Hill Viem\ Photo by R. A. Emerson 



over sandy formations at dry times. Some of the loosened 
sediment not protected by vegetation is now carried in a 
southeasterly direction by the winds prevailing at the time 
of greatest dryness. 

Dunes and Ridges. The dunes (Figure 43) vary in form 
and size, rarely exceeding 100 feet in height and usually not 
more than 25 to 50 feet. In diameter they range from 100 
feet or less to 100 yards or more. The form may be described 
as conical, the smaller hills giving a billowy appearance to the 




Fig. 44. A Sand Hill Basin in which Water has stood 




Fig. 45. Sand Hill Blow-outs — one in the Foreground and Two 
in the Distance. Photo by R. A. Emerson 



87 



X 



88 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA. 

landscape where close together. The ranges or ridges were 
formed by the union of dunes which traveled in a common 
direction under the influence of the wind, prominent examples 
of which are found near the Dismal River south of Thedford. 
Basins and Dry Valleys. Almost everywhere in the 
region one sees saucer-like basins (Figure 44) between the 
dunes, and elliptical, dry valleys between the ranges. The 
largest and more continuous dry valleys look much like the 



Fig. 46. Section in the Sand Hills showing: A, Impervious 
Beds; B, C, Stratified and Wind-blown Sands filled with 
Water; D, Sand Dune; E, Wet-weather Pond; F, Dry 
Valley; G, Lake; H, Water Table 

bottom lands of rivers. At places the basins and valleys 
make up a large part of the region. 

Blow-outs. These are crater-like holes made in the sur- 
face of the land by wind. (Figure 45) They are a common 
feature in the sand hills, usually occurring on the windward 
sides of dunes, where often the sand is removed to depths 
of 10 to 20 feet or more. 

Blow-outs are not confined to dunes and ridges, but may 
be seen also on smooth lands where a sandy soil has been 
plowed. The blow-outs begin to form at places where the 
soil is uncovered; from this spot sand is removed little by 



THE SAND HILL REGION 89 

little and thus a cavity is made. As the work goes on vegeta- 
tion is uprooted and a typical blow-out with its barren surface 
results. 

Surface Drainage. The sandhill region contains few 
streams, those which are present having a continuous struggle 
with drifting sand. Some of the old valleys which formerly 
were occupied by rivers are now filled with sand. The river 
valleys have few or no tributaries. Their streams are abun- 









i^BK*Mip'^w«S^^^^^^ 


^K^'^gmd. 


g 



Fig. 47. Watts Lake in the Sand Hills. Photo by E. H. Barbour 

dantly supplied by spring water but with little or no storm 
water. 

There is little surface drainage. For miles in the hills 
proper no stream-channels are seen. This, then, is the sec- 
ond characteristic feature of the region, the other being a 
wind-formed topography. 

Ground Water. The open-textured sandy soil absorbs 
most of the rainfall. Though the amount of moisture evapor- 
ated from the soil is large, there is not as much loss in that way 
as some have thought, a surface mulch of sand preventing 
excessive evaporation. Much of the rainfall percolates down- 



90 



THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA 



ward through the sand and becomes ground water. The 
water table is nearest the surface at a distance from the river 
valleys, rising and falling with the wet and dry years. (Figure 
46) The amount of ground water in the Sand Hill Region is 
great, more than would be expected with the rainfall. Capil- 
lary water is present in the sand at a distance of a few inches 




Fig. 48, Graps i.axd. The land to the Right of the Fence has 
BEEN "Overgrazed." Photo by R. A. Emerson 



below the surface, extending from this point to the water 
table below. The ground w^ater varies from that of good 
quality to that which is somewhat alkaline. 

Lakes. These are numerous in some places, notably in 
Brown and Cherry counties. The origin of sand hill lakes is 
now quite well known. The rainfall of the hills soaks down- 
ward, becoming ground water. The water table is never 
exactly level; it levels up in the region and thus rises above 



THE SAND HILL REGION 91 

the bottoms of the lowest basins and valleys^ forming lakes. 
(Figure 47) Since the lake surfaces are level and the water 
table slopes southeastward, much of the ground water enters 
the lakes at their western and northwestern ends as seepage 
springs. It has been observed that the lakes grow larger and 
deeper during periods of heavy rainfall; and smaller and 
shallower at times of light rainfall. They are important as a 
source of stock water; and are the stopping places of many 
ducks and geese during their migrations, when hunters 
slaughter them too freely. A few lakes afford good fishing. 

Wet Weather Ponds. These are more common than the 
permanent lakes, and their origin is not hard to explain. The 
rainfall is mostly caught by the sands on the hill slopes, but 
during a dashing rain some of it runs to the basins below. 
This run-off carries the finest sediment to the basin floors and 
silts them, i.e. makes them more impervious to water. Later, 
plant growth further assists in sealing the basins, causing 
them to hold more of the storm water. After a basin is thus 
formed it holds storm water for a short time after a heavy rain, 
but not permanently, for the supply is soon lost by evaporation 
and by percolation. These ponds are not exposed ground 
w;ater tables, in many cases the water table lying several feet 
below them. (Figure 46) The height to which water has 
stood in a basin may be told by the darkened soil. (Figure 44) 

The Soils. The soils of this region are very silty and sandy 
with only a small amount of clay. Soil on the dunes and 
ridges contains very little humus. Some of it is wafted about 
by wind and at.such places is not fixed in position. It contains 
little plant food. The basin and valley soils are more fertile. 
The percent of arable land in the region is not known, yet there 
are desirable farm lands in certain dry valleys and about the 
lakes. 

Vegetation. This has been called the thin grass country, 



02 



THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA 



the grass standing quite thin on the dunes but increasing in 
amount in the basins and dry valleys. More kinds of grass 
grow here than elsewhere in the state, due !o the great variety 
of conditions. The principal enemies of vegetation are drift- 
ing sands, over-grazing (Figure 48), fires and occasional drouths. 
Some grasses appear to increase and decrease in amount with 
wet and dry periods, the growth of certain kinds thickening 




Fig. 49. Native Grasses at Edge of Sand Hills. 
SHOW IN THE Foreground 



Small Cacti 



during the times of heaviest rainfall while others decrease. 
The grasses which cover the sandy slopes and ridges are mostly 
the hard-stemmed and hard-leaved varieties. Most ridges are 
occupied by tufts of grass which do not form a perfect sod, the 
bunch grass being the most noticeable kind. Buffalo and 
gramma grasses form irregular patches where the soil is close- 
textured and dry. The sharp yucca plant is found at places 
and small cacti are present but not plentiful. (Figure 49) 
Wild fruit grows here, raspberries, sandcherries, and plums 
being most plentiful. Among the widely-scattered shrubs are 
the wild rose, dogwood and the grease wood. Sage brush is 



THE SAND HILL REGION 93 

found locally, but most near the edge of the region, giving a 
ragged appearance to the country. The shrubs shade the 
ground and also protect it from wind. Patches of plum 
bushes and similar growths constitute what are known as 
plum thickets, which occur in the pockets and basins and 
extend on to slopes facing southeast. (Figure 50) These 




Fig. 50. Plum Thicket in a Sand Hill Basin. A Large Dune 

SHOWS IN THE DISTANCE 

thickets are shelter for wild fowl such as the grouse and 
meadow lark, and a home for raccoon, the natural habitat of 
the last named animal being in timbered regions. 

Cottonwoods, box-elders, species of ash, and in some places 
cedars and pines extend part way into the sand hills, their 
stumps occurring yet farther away from the rivers. So there 
is some tree growth in the Sand Hill Region at present, and 
there may have been more in the past. 

Roads and TraveL The average sand hill road is little 
more than a trail, winding about from ranch to ranch or from 



94 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA 

town to town. Section lines are not followed in the hills. 
Travel is not bad when roads extend along the dry valleys, 
but where they cross a succession of dunes and ridges it is 
most wearing. While passing across these basins and valleys 
the rider is reminded of the firm and faster roads which prevail 
in the Loess Region. The wagon lunges forth as it gains the 
firmer ground and slows up as it again strikes the sand. The 
riding is without jolt, but very hard on teams. Wide tires 
are used on most vehicles to keep them from sinking into the 
sand. This is not a region of bicycling or of rapid driving, 
horseback riding being the quickest and easiest means of travel. 

Summary of Conditions. The rainfall is nearly all absorbed 
by the soil, producing an abundance of ground water, coming 
to the surface in places as lakes. Wells vary much in depth, 
ranging from a few feet to over 100 feet, some of them 
affording an abundance of stock water. 

The topography is unfavorable for travel. For the most 
part the soil is not adapted to the growth of farm crops. There 
is practically no building stone, and the supply of fuel is small. 

The region produces varying quantities of grass which 
serves for pasturage and for the production of hay. Where 
the grass is thin as many as 20 acres are required to pasture a 
single cow or horse, which means that ranches are necessarily 
large if many animals are raised on them. Hay is cut. in dry 
valleys and basins and corn and alfalfa are gro^vn at places. 
As a whole the Sand Hill Region has a thinly scattered 
population, whose interests are centered mostly in stock-rais- 



THE SAND HILL REGION 



95 



QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 

1. Compare the Sand Hill and Loess Regions in size? 

2. What is the source of the sand hill sand? 

3. Compare dunes and ridges. Compare basins and dry valleys. 

4. By what means is sand kept from blowing? 

5. How do rivers of the sand hills differ from rivers of the Loess 
Region? 

6. What are the characteristic features of the Sand Hill Region? 

7. At what places in this region is the water table nearest the 
surface? 

8. How are wet-weather ponds formed, and why are they so 
named? 

9. Give the origin and uses of sand hill lakes. 

10. Compare the vegetation of the Sand Hill and Loess regions. 

11. Why is the grass growth thin on the dunes and thick near the 
lakes? 

12. Why are the ranches large? 



CHAPTER X 
THE HIGH PLAINS REGION 

This region is quite unlike the sand hills in appearance. It 
receives its name from its altitude and smooth surface, though 
it contains some very rough lands^ This province is known 
also as the Table Land and Butte Region. 

Position and Area. This region has a wide range east of 
the Rocky Mountains, extending from Canada to New Mexico, 
and occupying the western part of Nebraska. The eastern 
boundary grades irregularly into the Sand Hill and Loess 
regions. This border has been eroded unevenly by the Nio- 
brara, Platte and Republican rivers, and modified into sand 
dunes between the valleys. 

The area of the High Plains Region in Nebraska is about 
16,000 square miles, not including small detached parts lying 
eastward along the principal valleys and in the Sand Hill Region. 

Structure and Origin. The surface formations are com- 
posed of thick beds of sand and gravel. The topmost forma- 
tion south of the North Platte River is a light colored, limy 
sand rock locally known as ''magnesia" and ''mortar bed 
rock." The mortar beds and the sandy beds combined vary 
from 300 to 600 feet in thickness, decreasing eastward. Next 
below these are thick layers of bad land clays extending 
under much of western Nebraska and outcropping in some of 
the valleys, while below these formations are yet older rocks. 
Thus we find that the upper beds of the region are limy and 
sandy, while the deeper exposed ones are more claye}-. 

1 Study Sidney, Chappell and Scotts Bluff topographic maps; Professional 
Paper No. 17; Water Supply, Paper No. 70; Camp Clark and Scotts Bluff folios. 

96 



THE HIGH PLAINS REGION 97 

The materials composing these surface beds were carried 
eastward from the mountains by rivers and spread widely over 
the entire region. Finally, after the rock beds were formed 
with a nearly smooth surface, they were elevated and then the 
rivers began to saw deep valleys in them. 

Valleys. Since the High Plains were formed they have 
been destroyed in part by flowing water. The high altitude 




Fig. 51. View of Box Butte Plains near Hemingpord 

Photo by U. G. Cornell 

of the region gives swift rivers which erode the land rapidly. 
The North Platte, Niobrara, White, Pumpkinseed and Lodge- 
pole valleys are so many troughs which have been carved in 
the original High Plains or table lands. Of these, the Platte 
Valley is the largest and deepest, its depth being from 800 to 
1,200 feet with sides ranging from those that are gradual to 
abrupt cliffs 400 to 700 feet high. The width of this large 
valley from table land to table land in Scotts Bluff and 
Cheyenne counties varies from 10 to 15 miles. Pumpkinseed 
valley is a wide tributary of the Platte while the Lodgepole 
and the Niobrara valleys are smaller. White River Valley is 



98 



THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA 



the northern hmit of the High Plains Region in Nebraska, its 
table land wall being the Pine Ridge escarpment. 

High Plains Areas. 
These are the most 
elevated portions of 
our state, constituting 
the undissected parts 
of the original High 
Plain surface. (Figure 
51) Two principal 
areas embracing most 
of the table land sur- 
face of the state are 
called the Cheyenne 
Plains and the Box 
Butte Plains. 

The Cheyenne Plains 
are shown typically in 
Cheyenne County, 
hence the name. They 
are the eastward ex- 
tension of the elevated 
surface lying from 
Pumpkinseed Valley 
southward. The land 
to the south of Lodge- 
pole Valley is prac- 
tically a part of this 
area, being separated 
by the small Lodgepole 
Valley only 300 feet deep. The Cheyenne Plains are about 
100 miles in length from west to east in Nebraska, and at 
palces 40 miles wide. The surface is quite smooth with a 




Fig. 52. Carter Canyon at the Edges 
OF North Platte Valley 

Photo by H. A. ]\Iark 



THE HIGH PLAINS REGION 



99 



slope eastward of from 10 to 15 feet per mile, the storm 
water accumulating in shallow depressions as small inter- 
mittent ponds. 

The highest points, about 5,300 feet in altitude, are in the 
southwestern part of Banner County. The table land view is 
open, impressing one with the vastness of the country. 




Fig. 53. A Large Butte near Crawford 



The Box Butte Plains lie in the vicinity of Hemingford, Box 
Butte County, where some 500 square miles of the High Plains 
constitute a typical table land. Its altitude ranges from about 
5,000 feet in the west bo about 4,000 feet in the east, extending 
from the North Platte Valley to Pine Ridge and from near 
Wyoming eastward across Sioux, Box Butte, southern Dawes 
and the northern part of Sheridan counties. The surface is 
even, excepting the roughened land near the Wyoming line, 

tOfC. 



100 



THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA. 



while a few local sand hills give contrast to the usual table land 
conditions. The Niobrara Valley extends across the table 
from west to east, but is not deep or large enough to separate 
it into two distinct areas. 

Canyons and Buttes. These are features of the roughest 
parts of the High Plains Region. The canj-ons are deep, steep- 
walled ravines made in the plains or table lands by run-off 




Fig. 54. Summit of the Larger Twin Butte, Boyd County 

water. (Figure 52) They are similar in origin to those of the 
Loess Region, but larger and more diverse in appearance. 
The buttes also were carved out of the original table land. 
(Figure 53) They are parts of the High Plains which have not 
been worn away, standing out prominently, some being of 
mountain height, the tops of a few remaining as high as the 
original table land. In most cases the original topmost beds 
of the High Plains have been entirely removed by erosion, the 
hard beds lower down becoming the tops of the buttes. Where 
this has happened the summits of the buttes are lower than the 



THE HIGH PLAINS REGION 101 

remaining plain of which they were once a part. In the 
eastern and most eroded part of the region, certain stony hills 
and buttes mark the former extent of the table lands in that 
direction, examples of this kind occurring in Cedar, Knox, 
Boyd and Franklin comities. Twin Buttes in Boyd County 
constitute a prominent land mark, their summits rising to 
an altitude of 2050 feet or nearly 200 feet above the surround- 
ing country, being visible many miles northward in Dakota and 
from five or six counties in Nebraska. They are capped 
with a hard rock (Figure 54) beneath which is sand and deeper 
down a second hard rock resting on clay or shale. 

There are hundreds of large buttes in the High Plains Region, 
bearing such names as Lover's Leap, Signal Butte, Look out 
Mountain and Crow Butte; they are also called mountains, 
chimneys, castles, etc. The largest buttes occur in Pine Ridge 
and in Wild Cat Range, where the country is of mountain 
altitude and scenery. 

Pine Ridge. This is Nebraska's most prominent topo- 
graphic feature, receiving its name from the pine trees covering 
it in places. (Figure 55) The ridge is a high escarpment in 
the northwestern part of the state, extending from Wyoming 
through Sioux (Figure 56), Dawes and Sheridan Counties in 
Nebraska and into South Dakota. It is the north edge of the 
Box Butte Plains facing in the direction of the Black Hills. 
The ridge was formed by the erosion of White River and some 
of the branches of the Cheyenne River. Its crest is about as 
high as the table lands to the south„ The slope northward has 
a descent of from 800 to 1,000 feet, while the ridge is much 
roughened by buttes and intervening canyons. From the 
vicinity of Harrison a long spur extends northeastward between 
Hat Creek and White River basins. The deepest trenches in 
Pine Ridge occur in Sioux County where Sowbelly and Monroe 
Canyons are among the best-known. Of the numerous buttes 




Fig. 55, At the Edge of Pine Ridge 
Photo by N. H. Darton 
102 



THE HIGH PLAINS REGION 



103 



in and near this escarpment Coliseum Rock, northwest of 
Harrison and Crow Butte just east of Crawford are best-known. 
Wild Cat Range. This ridge or range is nearly as well- 
known as Pine Ridge, though from a lack of transportation 
facilities it has been difficult to reach it until recently. During 
the early settlement of the far west some of the buttes and 



^^^'-^''''^ii^i^^^HBBH^^^^SB^^^^^^^''^^^^^'''''*'''^^^ 




i : ; ''^"""" ' ' :**f 




f 1 , - :; 



Fig. 56. Pine Ridge near the Nebraska- Wyoming line 

Photo by N. H. Darton 

other forms constituting this range were objects of wonder 
to emigrants passing over the Oregon Trail. 

The range lies between the North Platte and Pumpkinseed 
valleys and is about 50 miles long, extending south of east 
from Bald Peak and Signal Butte to Court House and Jail 
Rock. The width is about 10 miles to the west, gradually 
lessening to the east. Its distance from the Platte varies 
from 6 to 12 miles, with three prominent spurs coming still 
closer. The first of these is Scotts Bluff (Figure 57) with an 



104 



THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA 



altitude of 4,662 feet and a bold slope of nearly 800 feet on the 
north; the second is Castle Rock with an altitude of 4,473 feet 
and steep sides 675 feet high; while the third is Chimney Rock. 
Though not so high as the others, the last-named is one of our 
best-known topographic forms, standing out prominently in 
the Platte Valley and being visible for many miles. 
Court House and Jail Rock stand out as disconnected mem- 




FiG. 57. ScoTTs Bluff as seen from a Distance with the North 

Platte River in the Foreground 

Photo by N. H. Darton. 

bers of the range, near Bridgeport, Cheyenne County. A 
prominent spur of Wild Cat Range extends a short distance to 
the southeast, terminating in Hogback and Wild Cat mountains, 
which rise as high as the plains to the south; the first-named of 
these has an altitude of 5,082 feet and the second 5,038 feet. 
Their tops are 700 feet above Pumpkinseed Valley to the 
south, and about 1,150 feet above the Platte Valley to the 
north. The canyons in this range are deep and large. Roads 
and trails leading across the range are called passes at their 
highest points. 



THE HIGH PLAINS REGION 



105 



Professor C. E. Bessey first proposed the name, Wild Cat 
Range for this collection of buttes and high points. The 
range was eroded out of the Cheyenne Plains by Platte 
River and Pumpkinseed Creek. Court House and Jail Rock 
(Figure 58) at the east end of the range are lower than the rest; 
their tops are capped by resistant beds lying far below the 




I 



Fig. 58. Court House and Jail Rock 

Photo by E H. Barbour 

original surface of Cheyenne Plains which formerly extended 
northward across where now is the North Platte Valley. 

The buttes of the High Plains Region are more prominent 
than some mountains in the Appalachian System and most of 
western Nebraska is higher than the best-known mountains 
of New England. 

Water Supply. Much of the rainfall, though light, is 
absorbed/ becoming ground water, yet at the time of a driving 
rain the direct run-off is considerable on the rough lands, 
though slight on the smooth plains. The quality of water is 
generally good but locally alkaline. The water table is near 
the surface along the valley bottoms, and 100 to 300 feet deep 

lAdams G. I. Water Supply Paper, No. 70, U. S. G. S. 



106 



THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA 



in the uplands. The water of the plains is very pure, being 
soft to medium hard, while many of the canyons contain 
springs with the same quality of water. 

Vegetation. The High Plains Region is known as the 
short grass country. The soil is covered by a mat consisting 
of several low grasses, the principal kinds being buffalo, 
gramma, wheat and needle grasses, varying in importance in 




Fig. 59. Shrubs Resembling Sage Brush 



different places. Many of the sand hill species also occur in 
this region. The grass sod protects the soil from erosion by 
wind and rim-off water. On valley and other moist lands the 
grasses grow high and heavy, yielduig large quantities of hay. 
Small cacti are scattered over the table lands. Several 
kinds of shrubs grow in the canyons and in the open country, 
the sage brush principally on the sandy ridges between the 
valleys and uplands. (Figure 59.) The common wild fruits 
are the buffalo berry, plum, cherry, currant, gooseberry and 



THE HIGH PLAINS REGION 



107 



sandcherry, the last-named growing best on open, sandy 
lands. 

The tree growth is composed principally of pines (Figure 60) , 
cedars, cottonwoods and willows, the two last-named growing 
best on bottom lands or near ground water, while the pines and 




Fig. 60. Pines Trees ON Pine Ridge 

Photo by E. H. Barbour 

cedars are found on the canyon walls and higher places, 
especially on slopes facing northward. 

Summary of Conditions. The mean annual rainfall of the 
High Plains is not sufficient for the growth of late maturing 
grain crops except those that are drouth resisting. The North 
Platte River is fed by mountain water, its flow contin- 
uing during the summer. Wells are usually deep on the 
plains and shallow on valley floors. 

The soils of largest distribution are classed as close textured, 
sandy and alkaline. They are usually fertile and readily tilled 



108 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA 

where the land is smooth. Stony and pebbly soils are found 
locally. The topographic forms vary from smooth plains to 
mountainous areas. Wagon roads are uncertain on the steep 
valley slopes and good on the table lands. The amount of 
bottom and bench land is considerable, with a fair supply of 
irrigation water. 

Grasses vary from those that are short and thick to those 
that are high enough to produce hay. The only fuel of any 
consequence is the tree growth. Sand, gravel, sod and some 
stone constitute the building materials. Native timber is 
employed locally for building purposes and for fuel. Cattle- 
raising, dairying and farming are the principal industries. 
Except where irrigation is practised, the country is sparsely 
settled, though more thickly than the sand hills. 



QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 

1. How are the High Plains and the Sand Hill regions alike in 
structure? How unlike? 

2. Is the High Plains Region becoming smoother or rougher? 
Give reasons for your answer. 

3. Compare the Cheyenne and Box Butte plains. 

4. What are intermittent ponds and ^hy cannot they be depended 
upon as a source of stock water? 

5. How are butt(\s and canyons alike in origin? Is a canyon any- 
thing? 

6. Why are some huttes steeper than others? Higher, or lower? 
Would our state have buttes if there were no hard beds of rock? 

7. Compare Pine Ridge with Wild Cat Range. 

8. How does the vegetation of the High Plains Region differ from 
that of the sand hills? How is it similar? What difference in roads 
and crops? 

9. Which of the regions just named is the more thinly settled, 
and why? 

10. Where in the High Plains may one see mountain views, and 
experience a mountain climate? 



CHAPTER XI 
THE BAD LAND REGION ^ 

The name of this region was proposed by Frenchmen at an 
early date, meaning a country difficult to travel through.^ 
The region has been a retreat to the Indian; a hindrance to 
travel and railroads and to the geologist the "Good Lands/' 
for it is a great fossil field. In some respects this is the most 
interesting part of our state, though from an agricultural 
standpoint much of it is waste. 

Position and Area. It is an extension to the southwest 
of the Dakota Bad Lands. Fortunately for Nebraska, only a 
small portion of the region, about 1000 square miles, lies 
within its borders, and not all of that is a bad land surface. 
The main parts of the region in this state are beyond or north 
of Pine Ridge, and are confined to White River and Hat 
Creek basins, the two being separated by a spur extending 
northeastward from the High Plains. The floor of the Bad 
Lands lies at an altitude of from 800 to 1,000 feet below the 
crest of Pine Ridge. 

Beyond or north of the Bad Lands proper, in Nebraska, the 
Pierre shale, an alkaline formation, comes to the surface and 
occupies part of the province. Another bad land area is in 
the North Platte Valley at the foot of Scotts Bluff. 

Structure and Origin. The typical bad land formation is 
a light buff gray, sandy clay which geologists call the Brule 
clay. It is over 500 feet thick, underlaid by a more sandy and 
resistant light buff colored formation containing some sand 

^Barbour, E. H. Nebraska Geol. Survey, Vol. 1, pp. 143 to 152. Darton, N. H. 
Professional Paper No. 17, U. S. G. S., pp. 37-41. 

109 



no 



THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA 



and gravel. This lower layer is the Chadron formation, 
its thickness varying from 25 to 100 feet. 

The Brule clay outcrops in Pine Ridge, beneath the sandy 
members of the High Plains. Originally the Box Butte 
Plains extended northward across most of the present Bad 
Land Region of Nebraska, the Brule clay then lying 600 feet or 
more below the surface. (Figure 61.) The High Plains 
strata were removed by the White and Cheyenne rivers. 
During all of the time of erosion Pine Ridge retreated south- 
ward, and this process is still taking place. As soon as the 

rivers lowered their beds to the 
Brule clay the Bad Lands began 
to form. Where exposed, the 
Brule clay or typical bad land 
formation weathers and erodes 
rapidly, its fine texture causing 
a large amount of quick run- 
off, promoting excessive erosion 
for the amount of rainfall. 
Run-off water carves its surface 
into thousands of little rills. 
Since the formations erode so 
readily it did not take the 
rivers long, geologically speak- 
ing,to sculpture them into typi- 
cal Bad Lands, and in places 
to entirely wear them away. In Toadstool Park, a well-known 
bad land form, we find two types of surface, the Brule clay 
above, and the Chadron below. Thus some of the bad land 
surface is formed out of the Chadron lying below the Brule clay. 
The steps in the origin of the Bad Lands were about as 
follows: First a great fresh water lal^o was filled with clay 




Fig. 61. Section showing how 
THE Brule clay, number 3, 

OUT-CROPS ALONG THE NORTH 

FACE OF Pine Ridge. The 

SANDY BEDS 4 AND 5 FORMERLY 
EXTENDED NORTHWARD ACROSS 
WHAT IS NOW THE BaD LaND 

Region. Number 1 is the 
Pierre shale and 2, the 
Chadron Formation 



THE BAD LAND REGION 



111 



sediment and covered later to a depth of 600 feet or more by 
sands; second, the country was elevated, giving an increased 
slope eastward; third, the surface was dissected by streams 
which removed the sandy beds above and eroded the under- 
lying Brule clay and Chadron formations as we now find them 
in their bad land form. 

Topography. The land forms in this region are a marked 
contrast to those of the High Plains and the Sand Hill Region. 
(Figure 62.) In other words the Brule clay and the Chadron 




Fig. 62. A Bad Land View near Adelia 
Photo by E. H. Barbour 

formation erode into different forms from those of the High 
Plains sands and gravels. A bad land slope, where much 
dissected, is very irregular, containing pinnacles, spires and 
knobs, some of which are steep, their sides being hard to climb. 
(Figure 63.) 

Tourists often confuse the rougher parts of Pine Ridge with 
the Bad Lands proper, not realizing that a rough surface is not 
necessarily a bad land area. The prominent buttes in the 
vicinity of Crawford are at the edge of the Bad Lands, but 
not a part of them. 

Water Supply. The well water is poor in quahty and limited 



112 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA 

in quantity. Fortunately the streams flowing through the 
region are fed by springs in Pine Ridge, affording the only sure 
supply. The principal stream is White River, named from its 
light colored, turbid waters which prevail at flood time. 

Vegetation. At places, comprising about one-fourth of 
the area of the province, the ground in the Bad Land Region is 
entirely bare and arid. The lack of vegetation at such places 




Fig. 63. A Bad Land View at the Edge of Toad Stool Park 

Photo by E. H. Barbour 

is caused more by rapid erosion than by the light rainfall. 
The soft clays wash away so rapidly that plants cannot obtain 
a footing on steep slopes. In protected spots, however, and 
on gradual slopes, the grass covering is quite thick. Along the 
streams we find shrubs and trees. 

Utilization. Thus far the Bad Lands have had little 
economic importance. The water is poor, the topography 
unfavorable, the soil alkaline and unstable. Stock-raising is 
the only agricultural industry aside from farming in a small 
way. Geologists and geographers often make trips to the 
region for the purpose of studying erosion and topography. 



THE BAD LAND REGION 113 

An important though not valuable resource is the large 
number of fossils buried in the clays and sandy beds, many of 
which have been secured and shipped to the principal museums 
of the world. The Nebraska State Museum has a number of 
fossils which were collected by the State Geologist, Professor 
E. H. Barbour, and as a result of the financial assistance of 
Hon. C. H. Morrill. Among the fossil animals collected are the 
turtle, tiger, tapir, rhinoceros, horse and monkey, each very 
different from the skeleton of any living animal of the kind. 



QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 

1. Why are the Bad Lands so named? 

2. Which state has the more bad land surface, Nebraska or South 
Dakota? 

3. What is an alkaline formation? 

4. How do we know that the sandy beds of the High Plains Region 
formerly extended northward over the bad land formations? 

5. In what respects is this an interesting region? 

6. Why is it poor agriculturally? 

7- How did the fossil turtles come to be in this region? 

8. Why is bad land water of poor quality? 

9. Compare bad land and sand hill views. 

10. Do you think of any means whereby the Bad Land Region might 
become a more inviting place in which to live? 



CHAPTER XII 
SETTLEMENT AND DEVELOPMENT OF NEBRASKA 

Nebraska is a part of the Louisiana Purchase secured from 
France in 1803.^ When Missouri became a state in 1820, that 
part of the unorganized territory lying to the north and west 
of that state was called the "Indian Country." In 1854 
Nebraska Territory was set aside from the Indian Country 
with its boundary extending westward on the present southern 
line to the summit of the Rocky ^lountains and northward 
along that summit to the 49th parallel; thence eastward to 
about 103 degrees of west longitude, thence southward to the 
Missouri River, and down its main channel to the place of 
beginning. 

At different times Congress decreased the size of Nebraska 
Territory by the creation of new territories, but after its admis- 
sion as a state, March 1, 1867, the area was slightly increased 
by an act passed March 28, 1882, transferring from Dakota to 
Nebraska the land lying between the Keya Paha and Niobrara 
rivers and the present northern boundary. 

The Indians. The country was occupied by Indians before 
the time of the Louisiana Purchase, and before white men 
came westward. There were four main tribes in the eastern 
part of what is now Nebraska: the Otoes, who lived in the 
vicinity of Plattsmouth and Nebraska City; the Mahas, or 
Omahas, along the Missouri Valley but north of the Otoes; the 
Pawnees, who held most of the territory between the Republi- 

*For a brief and interesting reference, read Historical Sketch of Nebraska by A. 
E. Sheldon. 

114 




115 



116 



THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA 



can aiul the J.oup Valleys, and the Poncas, near the mouth of 
the Niobrara River. 

The western and northwestern parts of the state were the 
hunting grounds of the above named tribes, of the Cheyennes 
and Arapahoes and of the Sioux Indians of Dakota who often 
came into conflict with the Pawnees. The hunting grounds 
contained large herds of buffalo (Figure 64), droves of deer, 
elk and antelope which were the objects of the chase, and 

which became the 
source of much of the 
Redmen's food, cloth- 
ing, materials of shelter 
and even of his fuel. 
The Indians killed 
their large game with 
spears and with bows 
and flint-pointed ar- 
rows. The buffalo 
meat was cut into 
pieces and allowed to 
dry in the sun for use 
as food between the 
hunting seasons. The 
Indians lived in lodges 
composing villages which they abandoned twice each year for 
the hunting grounds. Their lodges were crude structures built 
of animal skins, poles, sod and bark. The "tepee" (Figure 
65) was the type of home possessed by the plains tribes; the 
dirt lodge by the Pawnees and the bark lodge by theWinneba- 
goes. (Figure 66.) The plains Indians were the most nomadic. 
In a simple way the Indians were adapted to their environ- 
ments. The forests, streams and plains meant only the bare 
necessities of life and pleasure to them. 




Fig. 65. 



Indian "Tepee" of the Sioux 
Indians 
Photo by E.G. Bishop 



SETTLEMENT AND DEVELOPMENT OF NEBRASKA 117 

The four first-named tribes came to Nebraska from the east 
and southeast between 200 and 500 years ago. Other tribes 
were brought here by the government when the Indians were 
placed on reservations. The Winnebagoes were brought 
from Wisconsin and Minnesota and placed on the northern 
part of the Omaha reservation in 1862, and the Santees from 
Minnesota to their reservation in Knox County in 1866. The 
Sac-and-Fox-and-Iowa reservation of Kansas extends for a 




Fig. 66. 



Bark Lodges of the Winnebagoes, Thurston County 

Photo by A. E. Sheldon 



short distance into Richardson County, but it has less than 
300 Indians within its borders, very few of whom live in 
Nebraska. 

Few Redmen live in Nebraska now, the white man's whiskey 
and diseases having claimed most of them. At times small-pox 
alone reduced the tribes one-half. Finally the government 
removed the surviving Pawnees, Poncas and Otoes to Okla- 
homa and Indian Territory — the Pawnees in 1875, the 
Poncas, against their choice, in 1877, and the Otoes in 1881. 
Later a few of the Poncas were allowed to return to their old 



118 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA 

home in Nebraska. There were about 6,000 Indians in the 
state in 1890 and 3,000 in 1900. So the Indians have sur- 
rendered their land and dwindled in numbers all within the 
memory of our oldest settlers. 

Explorers, Traders and Trappers. A few French explorers 
and traders visited the territory previous to 1803. In 
1804 the Lewis and Clark Expedition, under control of 
the National Government, passed up the Missouri River along 
the eastern border of our state, making a number of landings. 
At two places they held council with the Indians who promised 



^^^BBFjj' '-*^-2-* 


SBIiBnnRSj 


ML 


^.. Mumi. 




■—i^zr-..:^. 


t.^_m.' mam^' 



Fig. 67. Early Method op Freighting practiced in South Dakota 

AND Nebraska 

Photo by the State Historical Society 

allegiance to the United States. Later, other expeditions 
were sent into and through this region. 

Traders and trappers in larger numbers followed closely the 
explorations. Indian trade became an object. Between 1805 
and 1854 many trading posts were established at the most 
accessi])le points along the Missouri, the first being in Dakota 
County. White men moved freely in the Indian Country; 
furs and buffalo skins were collected at the various trading 
posts and taken ])y boat to St. Louis. 

The first white men, then, who came to the territory were 
attracted by trade. They did not come for the purpose of 
farming as the land was thought to be worthless. 

Overland Routes. In the second ])lace, people from the 



SETTLEMENT AND DEVELOPMENT OF NEBRASKA 119 

east wished to go through and beyond Nebraska, at first to 
Oregon and later to California, Colorado and to the Black 
Hills. The first trip overland was made in about 1831. The 
various routes of which the Oregon Trail was the best known 
followed the valleys, which were the natural roadways, furnish- 
ing a supply of water and fuel. Beginning with 1844 the 
number of emigrants passing west was rapidly increased. 

The Mormons crossed the plains in 1846. Then came the 
gold seekers by the thousands, and overland freighting in- 
creased in importance. The freighters with their heavy 
wagons and ox trains held sway for twenty years (Figure 67), 
carrying goods from the main outfitting posts to mining camps. 
With the freighters came and disappeared the overland post 
route, stages and pony express, which were the forerunners 
of our present rapid transit. The hardships then endured 
are quite a contrast to the present experience in traveling and 
freighting. 

It was on these trips across the plains that large herds of 
buffalo were seen. These animals were killed for food, but 
usually slaughtered too freely, resulting in their rapid extermi- 
nation. 

Early Settlers. The traders and trappers did not come 
to make homes; neither did the Indian agents who were sent 
by the government. After these came the missionaries and 
the settlers or "squatters," as they were called. It is said 
that Stephen Story was the first squatter, locating in the 
southeastern part of the territory in 1844, before white 
men had a right to take claims. Soon the Indians ceded land 
to the government and squatters became settlers by pre- 
empting land. Each was allowed 160 acres for which he 
promised to pay $200. The first free homestead was filed in 
1863. 

Settlers entered Nebraska from the east, as the Indians had 



120 



THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA. 




Fig. 69. Abandoned "Soddy" 
Fig. 68. Log School House, not now used 

done many years earlier. White settlements began in the 

Missouri Valley on the southeast and progressed northward 

and westward into the tributary valleys, the migration soon 

extending westward into other valleys, following the streams, 

timber and stone. By 1870 the land of the Blue River valleys 

was filed. 

As soon as the fertility of the upland soil became knowTi and 

it was found that water could be obtained there at no great 

depth, settlements extended to the Loess Plains also. 

The first houses near the woodlands were made of logs 

(Figure 68) and those 

on the Loess Plains 

were dugouts and 

"soddies" (Figure 

69), while stone was 

used where it was 

accessible. (Figure 

70.) 

The homesteaders 

became farmers. 

They went to work 

on their claims, break- 

,. _,, r, u ing land and putting 

liG. 70. Stone House ^ i e> 

Photo by c. A. Fisher up buildings. Large 




SETTLEMENT AND DEVELOPMENT OF NEBRASKA 121 

crops were raised, except during grasshopper years and periods 
of drought, though at times there was Httle demand for corn 
and wheat, for without railroads these products were too far 
from market. In some places corn was used for fuel. 

Usually the Indians were friendly to the settlers, but in 1854 
and 1855 they caused some trouble. During the summer of 




Fig. 71. An early Missouri River Steamer 
Photo by E. A. Sheldon of the State Historical Society 

1863, the Pawnees killed many men, women and children in 
the frontier settlements. Forts were established for the pro- 
tection of emigrants and settlers. 

During the early settlements the western part of the territory 
became the cattle and cowboy country. The range was not 
fenced, being free to many thousands of cattle which were 
driven north in the spring and south in the fall. So, gradually, 
the white man's cattle took the place of the Indian's buffalo. 
The large cattle owners were then called "cattle kings.'' 



122 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA 

The Missouri River. This river was an important factor 
in the early development of Nebraska. Down its course were 
carried the caJ-goes obtained from Indians and trappers. The 
first boats used were small and crude affairs which soon gave 
way to steamboats. (Figure 71.) Beginning about 1830 the 
steamers made regular trips up and down the river between 
St. Louis and the trading posts, carrying stores for overland 



^^^^^Py ^ 


t 


1 




1 



Fig. 72. Union Pacific Bridge at Omaha 

freighting, supplies for settlers, and passengers of all sorts. 
Furs,cattle and grain, in order ,were the principal cargoes carried 
down-stream. It was north and south traffic by way of the 
Missouri and the Mississippi which together formed a great 
natural transportation gate-way to the northwest, much to the 
advantage of St. Joseph, Kansas City and especially of St. 
Louis. Steamboat navigation continued for about forty years. 
Railroads. The first railroad to cross Nebraska w^as the 
Union Pacific, extending from Omaha to the Platte, thence 
westward along that valley and the Lodge Pole to Wyoming 
and ])eyond to the Pacific coast. The road was finished across 



SETTLEMENT AND DEVELOPMENT OF NEBRASKA 123 

the continent in 1869, but it hauled freight and passengers in 
Nebraska three years earlier. The Platte Valley, one of the 
finest roadways in the world, was an important factor in de- 
termining the location of this first trans-continental railroad, 
but the Missouri River was an obstruction difficult to span. 
(Figure 72.) Soon the main line of the Burlington was built to 
Lincoln and then to Denver. Another line of the same system 
extended from Lincoln to the Black Hills and beyond. The 



p0^^ 




ilF^'^^'*^'''''.''.^^ '^^^^""^ 


s^j^ 


"'"'''' '^^;'"^^"^ ' ~ " ^ ' }:i 



Fig. 73. Modern Sod House of Western Nebraska 

Photo by E. H. Barbour 



Northwestern built from Omaha to the Black Hills, later con- 
structing a number of branches and connecting lines. A 
railroad which is now a part of the Burlington system was 
constructed from Nebraska City to Lincoln at a somewhat 
earlier date. The Rock Island, the Missouri Pacific and a 
number of other systems finish the list. 

The railroads first built through Nebraska to points west- 
ward wishino; to reach the coast and later Denver and the 



124 



THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA 



Black Hills. As a result of such constructon our state has six 
trans-continental railroads, affording sure train service between 
the larger towns. Later, each system extended its connecting 
lines, especially in the eastern counties; in all there are over 
10,000 miles of railroad in the state, reaching most towns of 
any size. The largest system is the Burlington, while the 
Northwestern is second in mileage. 

The topographic features have had much to do with determin- 
ing the locations of the railroads in Nebraska. The roads fol- 
lowed the valleys and smooth lands to the west and northwest, 
penetrating the Sand Hill Region by following up the river 
valleys, then along the dry valleys to the high plains. The 
Platte and the Republican bench lands afford good roadways, 
especially on the north side of each. 

The coming of the Union Pacific and other railroads revo- 
lutionized transportation. It meant the death of steamboat 
and overland freighting. The stage coaches were either driven 
out of business or caused to select routes at right angles to the 

railroads. The direc- 
tion of transportation 
changed from north 
and south, to east 
and west, with Chicago 
and New York City as 
the favored cities 
rather than Kansas 
City and St. Louis. 
The products of the 
farm and city found 
in the railroads a quick 

means of transporta- 
MoDERN Residence of a Well x- . ^y^ i 
Known Nebraskan ^^^^ ^^ ^^® ^^^S^ mar 

Photo by U. G Cornell. kets. 




Fig. 74. 



SETTLEMENT AND DEVELOPMENT OF NEBRASKA 125 

During the past few years a strong demand has arisen for 
more north and south Hnes, and the roads are now building in 
that direction. There also is promise of a number of interurban 
electric roads, and of an extension of connecting lines of each 
railroad system. 

With the railroads have come the fast mail and telegraph. 
These with a nearly universal telephone service, give the state 
quick communication. 

Climatic Influences. The homesteaders had fairly prosper- 
ous times until the early seventies when the rainfall decreased 
and when grasshoppers destroyed the crops in 1874 and 1875. 
Hard times prevailed imtil near the close of the seventies, when 
the rainfall became heavier for another period of years and 
with it came a return of prosperity and railroad building. 
Homesteaders pushed westward during the wet years, and 
the country filled up rapidly until the wave of settlement 
swept over the whole of the High Plains Region and into 
the isolated valleys of the Sand Hill Region. The advance 
was resisted, but unsuccessfully, by the cattlemen; the day of 
free range and large ranches had passed, at least for a time. 
Heavy rainfall favored the farmers who grew large crops in the 
short grass country. The manufactm'ing interests of the state 
made a strong advance, especially in the larger towns of the 
eastern counties. 

In 1890 the rainfall again decreased, followed four ye^rs 
later by a severe drouth. Farming in the western counties, 
except under irrigation, failed, and as a result most of the 
homesteaders in the western counties abandoned their places 
and turned eastward. Farming with their methods and their 
crops had been carried^too far into the sub-humid area to stand 
dry seasons, and the agricultural population dwindled during 
the remaining 'dry years. Grazing interests increased, and 
the cattlemen again controlled the country. The sod houses 



126 



THE GEOGKAPHY OF NEBRASKA 



tumbled down (Figure 69) causing the country to appear the 
more desolate. The prairie dog and the coyote were less 
molested in their native haunts. 

Within a few years another increase in rainfall set in, and 
farming has since proved successful over all of the High Plains. 




Fig. 75. Cement House 



This time the farmers have new crops and dry farming methods. 
There is also an extension of railroads and a great advance in 
manufacturing, with promise of more permanence of develop- 
ment than before. Improvements prevail in the country 
town and city. The sod houses of the high plains are either 
disappearing or being replaced by others of a more permanent 



SETTLEMENT AND DEVELOPMENT OF NEBRASKA 127 

kind. (Figure 73.) Throughout the state modern dweUings 
(Figure 74) are supplanting those of the older types. 

Cement, sand, gravel, and crushed stone are now used in 
increasing amounts in what are called "cement houses. '' 
, (Figure 75.) 

Population. The people of Nebraska show a high average 




Fig. 76. A Typical Town School Ground and Building, Florence, 

Nebraska 



in industry and intelligence, though the increase in population 
has been rapid. Immigration has come largely from the 
states east of Nebraska and from foreign countries, the for- 
eign peoples in the state being largely Germans, Swedes, 
Norwegians, Bohemians and Russians. 

In 1854, at the time of the organization of the territory, 
the population was 2,700; in 1860 it was 28,841; in 1870 
it was 122,993; in 1880 it had increased to 450,402; in 



128 



THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA 



1890 to 1,058,910, and in 1900 to 1,068,539. The report of 
1890 is thought to have been too high. The population now, 
is considerably greater than in 1900. 

Education. It is in this line that Nebraska has made most 
remarkable development. The first Nebraska school was 
taught near Bellevue by Mrs. Joseph P. ^lerrill in 1833, the 
pupils being Indians and haLfbreeds. The 'first Territorial 




Fig. 77. 



Library Building, University of Nebraska 

Photo by U. G. Cornell 



Legislature passed a free public school act March 16, 1855, and 
the first State Legislature made wise provision for the main- 
tenance of the schools. Mt. Vernon College (Methodist) was 
founded at Peru in 1866, becoming the State Normal in 1867. 
The Institute for Deaf and Dumb was established at Omaha in 
1869, and the State Industrial School at Kearney in 1870. The 
University of Nebraska at Lincoln dates back to 1871; the 
Nebraska School for the Blind was established at Nebraska 
City in 1875; the Institute for the Feeble blinded Youth at 



SETTLEMENT AND DEVELOPMENT OF NEBRASKA 129 



Beatrice in 1885, and the Girls' Industrial School was separated 
from the school at Kearney and located at Geneva in 1892. 
The second State Normal was established at Kearney in 1904, 
opening its doors to a large enrollment in 1905. 

In these schools Nebraska has made provision for the educa- 
tion of both the fortunate and unfortunate boys and girls, and 
for her mechanics, farmers, lawyers, physicians and teachers. 

To-day public 
school instruction is 
free from the first 
grade through the 
high school, normal 
school and the Uni- 
versity of Nebraska, 
a student being ex- 
pected to finish the 
high school by the 
age of twenty-one. 
In 1905 there were 
6,767 school houses 
(Figure 76) with 9,714 
teachers in the state. 
There were 379,014 
school children of 
school age, i.e., be- 
tween the ages 5 and 
21. The Normal 

schools afford training for a large number of teachers, while 
the University has a total enrollment in its various schools 
and colleges of about 3,000 students. (Figure 77) 

Besides the public schools there are many successful paro- 
chial, private and denominational academies and colleges in 
Nebraska. Among these schools and colleges may be men- 




FiG. 78. 



A Young Agriculturalist and 
His Products 

Photo by E.G. Bishop 



130 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA 

tioned the large i)rivate normal colleges at Fremont and 
Wayne, the Presbyterian colleges at Bellevue and Hastings, 
the Baptist college at Grand Island, the United Brethren 
college at York, the Congregational college and academies at 
Crete, Chadron, Franklin, Neligh, and Weeping Water, the 
Methodist university at University Place, the Adventist college 
at College View, the Episcopalian academies at Omaha and 
Kearney, the Lutheran academy at Wahoo, and the Danish 
college at Blair. 

The Catholic Church maintains strong and well managed 
schools in the nature of academies at Falls City, York, Lincoln, 
Omaha, O'Neill, Humphrey, Columbus and a large number of 
other places. 

Creighton University (Catholic) at Omaha is a large and 
well equipped school and stands strongly for higher education. 

Nearly all of the colleges and universities named above are 
of state wide influence and have the power, as have the state 
educational institutions, of issuing teachers' certificates to 
graduates of their normal courses. The motto of these Nebras- 
ka schools is '^each for all and all for each," and a strong 
fraternal feeling pre^^ails among them. 

Agricultural Education. Under the efficient management 
of the state superintendent and his deputy and with the 
cooperation of the various educational institutions much 
emphasis is placed on w^hat is called a practical education. 
There is an endeavor to thoroughly prepare students for the 
occupations which they are to follow. This means that our 
boys and girls should study things agricultural, for most 
of them are interested, either directly or indirectly, in the 
farm and its products. Since Nebraska is naturally an agri- 
cultural state, there is, on that account, a demand for agricul- 
tural education. 

For a number of years, the soils, croi)s, and other matters of 



SETTLEMENT AND DEVELOPMENT OF NEBRASKA 131 

the farm were studied by farmers alone ^ but now the boys 
(Figure 78) and girls of the state are more interested in seed 
corn, breeds of animals and school gardening (Figure 79) 
than their parents ever were. In this regard, as we should 
expect, Nebraska is leading the other states. Agricultural 
instruction is given in a number of high schools and colleges. 
There is opportunity for boys and girls who complete the 



#- f'..i,.ui.....»«^w '-■i^m '■^' 


' ''^ ""^^^11 Mi 


m-- 1^ 


' 4 




c»s__ 




' f 




mm 




v^^^^l 


".* M 


«->^?^^ 




^ '1 


' ^^^ ' '>n 


1, m "^ 


i^Ka*^ 


Jl^^^^^mS* 


m&'^^ 


\a^^' ■' ' 


K^^B 


^^/f^-^:-;. 


HB^S 









Fig. 79. The School Garden. Children preparing Seed Beds, 
Sarpy County 

Photo by E. C. Bishop 



eighth grade in the pubhc schools to enter the short courses in 
the School of Agriculture and the School of Domestic Science 
at the University of Nebraska and there receive instruction 
in the simple things of the farm and farm home. More 
advanced work is taken in the college course in agriculture. 

Various state organizations promote the interests of 
agricultural education. 

Geography and Politics. Since the earliest settlements, 



132 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA 

the Platte Valley has been a dividing line in politics. At times 
the line of division has decreased in importance, but only to be 
emphasized anew at some later period. 

In a study of the settlement and development of the state, we 
may note that the smallest counties are in the east and the 
largest in the west, their areas having been determined by 
settlement and that largely by rainfall. The geography 
has likewise influenced the size of congressional districts and 
other political divisions of the state. 

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 

1. What states are now a part of what was once Nebraska Terri- 
tory? 

2. Why did the Indians dwell most in valleys? 

3. How did the early Indians make fires? Cut wood? Kill their 
game? Travel? Farm? 

4. Why did they farm so little? 

5. Compare the arbors of the different Indian tribes. Why were 
they so unlike? 

6. How and by what routes did the Indians come to Nebraska? 

7. What has become of Nebraska's Indians? 

8. What is an Indian Reservation? An Indian Agent? An 
Agency? 

9. Why did Lewis and Clark ascend the Missouri? 

10. In what did the early trade with the Indians consist? 

11. For what purpose did the first white men come to Nebraska 
Territory, and by what routes? 

12. Why were the overland routes so named? 

13. What attracted emigrants to the far west? 

14. What did the freighters haul? Why did they draw three 
wagons together as we see them in figure 67? 

15. Who slaughtered the more buffaloes, the Indians or the white 



men 



16. Did the buffalo assist in the development of the west? 

17. Why was our state settled first in the east? In valleys? 

18. Why were most sod houses located on the upland? 



SETTLEMENT AND DEVELOPMENT OF NEBRASKA 133 

19. Was it a good policy for the government to give settlers free 
homesteads? 

20. What improvements do we now have which the settlers did not 
have? 

21. Why were Indians unfriendly at times to settlers and emigrants? 

22. Has the change from the buffalo to cattle been for the best? 

23. How did the Platte Valley govern the location of the Union 
Pacific railroad? 

24. Why did railroads wish to build westward across Nebraska? 

25. Why was Nebraska settled by periods? 

26. Why were cattle men opposed to settlement? 

27. What is meant by the terms-; arid, sub-humid and humid? 

28. How do schools influnce the development of our state? 

29. Why is agricultural education so prominent in Nebraska? 

30. Explain why counties are smaller in the eastern than in the 
western part of the state. \^ 



CHAPTER XIII 
SUMMARY OF RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES 

Nebraska has a variety of resources upon which are ])ased 
many industries. 

Water Resources. The ground water is of great import- 
ance.^ In Chapter VI we learned somethhig of its forms and 
uses. The average good quahty of well water is an important 
resource, one not capable of a monetary estimate. The uses of 
artesian waters, except for irrigation (Figure 80), have been 
named. Springs were also described. 

The stream water is used for mill power most extensively in 
the eastern part of the state. In all there are over 200 water 
powers, many of them operating all the year. At present only 
a small part of the total fall of the streams is employed for 
power. 

Ice is cut from a number of rivers and lakes, some of which 
are near Lincoln, Ashland, Deerfield and Valentine. This ice 
is placed in ice houses and used by railroads and large packing 
houses, as well as for domestic purposes. 

Mineral Resources. Only traces of gold and silver have 
been found, while iron is not present in large enough quantities 
to insure profitable working.^ The state's greatest deficiency 
is in its apparent lack of mineral fuel, no large quantities of 
coal being discovered, though thin beds have been worked at 
Ponca, Peru, Rulo, Humboldt and other places. A bed of a 
good quality of coal has been discovered near Peru which 

* Use references already cited, i. e. the Water Supply and Professional Papers. 
Also Camp Clark and Scotts Blufif folios. 

2 Barbour. E. H. Nebraska Geol. Survey, Vol. 1. pp. 178-232. 

134 



SUMMARY OF RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES 135 

promises to develop into a paying mine. It is not known 
definitely whether or not there is much oil or gas in the rock 
formations. Building materials of several kinds are found in 
the state. The deficiency in fuel is a great drawback to the 
industrial development of Nebraska. If fuels were present in 




Fig. 80. Artesian Well of the School for Indian Boys and Girls, 
Santee, Nebraska. Two Indian Boys and an Indian Girl 
SHOW in this Figure 

large quantities, our cla}^ and cement materials could be 
manufactured more profitably into needed products. 

Stone Working. Building stone is quarried in most 
counties, several kinds of rock outcropping in the different 
valleys. At such places the overlying rock waste is removed, 
after which the ledges are worked out as quarries. In Jeffer- 
son, Thayer, Cass and other counties, there are places where to 




]": 




Fig. 82. 



A Large Stone-crusher near Wymore. The Quarry is 

ABOVE THE CrUSHER 




Fig'. 83. Niobrara Chalk-rock forming High Bluffs near the 
Town of Niobrara. The North-western Railroad is at the 
Foot of the Bluff 



137 




138 



SUMMARY OF RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES 139 

trace the outcroppings of certain limestone formations would 
be to follow a continuous line of quarries. Unfortunately the 
stone does not compare in quality with that quarried in the 
leading stone producing states; however, it is of sufficient 
grade to warrant extensive use. Most of the quarrying is done 




Fig. 85. Artificial Stone Plant at Cambridge 



near Louisville, Weeping Water, Nehawka, Johnson, Wymore 
and Gilead. Near Louisville the National Stone Company is 
operating one of the six largest quarries in the state (Figure 
81), the product of which is used for foundation, ballast and 
concrete work. Two large quarries and crushers are operated 
two miles east of Wymore where 12 to 15 feet of limestone 
containing much flint is quarried and crushed for ballast, 



140 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA 

concrete and street making. (Figure 82) There are fully 200 
other quarries in the state operated for local use and shipment. 
The limestone used in the manufacture of beet sugar comes 
from the lower Platte Valley. 

Cement Rock. Chalk and clay formations which may be 
used in the manufacture of Portland cement outcrop along the 
Missouri in the vicinity of Niobrara, and along the Republican 
from Superior to Alma. The same materials, the Niobrara 
chalk rock and the Pierre shale or clay, are quarried, crushed 
and manufactured into a high grade cement at Yankton, 
South Dakota.^ This is done by heating pulverized materials 
together to a high temperature, then grinding them to a powder 
or cement. The chalk rock is shown prominently in the 
bluffs al)out one mile west of the town of Niobrara. (Figure 
83) The carboniferous limestones and shales of southeastern 
Nebraska also are cement materials. 

Clay Working. As a resource, clay holds an important 
place in our state, that obtained from the Dakota formation 
near Louisville, Lincoln, Beatrice, Fairbury and Steele City 
being well adapted to brick making, especially when mixed with 
loess. Pennsylvanian clays are manufactured into brick at 
Table Rock, Nebraska City, Peru and a number of other 
southeastern towns. Loess and alluvium are used alone in 
brick making where the older formations do not outcrop. 

Nel^raska has more than 100 brick yards, those most success- 
fully operated l^eing in the eastern counties. At some of the 
places expensive machinery is employed and a high-grade 
product is made, certain plants or yards manufacturing as 
many as five and ten million brick per year. 

Sand and Gravel Working. These may prove to be our 
leading mineral industries. There is an abundance of sand 

3Condra, G. E. Geology and Water Resources of Northeastern Nebraska (in press) 
U. S. G. S. 



SUMMARY OF RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES 141 

and a considerable amount of gravel, glacial and alluvial sands 
having a wide distribution ". The first-named is most abun- 
dant in the vicinity of Fairbury, while the alluvial sands are 
found in the valley bottoms, especially along the Platte. 
Often in the central towns of the state, such as Kearney and 
Grand Island, enough sand is taken from a cellar for use in 
finishing the structure. Nine different clam dredges are now 
loading the Platte sand on cars for shipment. (Figure 84) 

The daily amount of sand shipped from each dredge varies 
from six to fifteen cars, making in all about three trainloads a 
day, when the loading is operating at its best. Much of the 
sand is shipped out of the state, going as far east as Des Moines, 
Iowa. Besides the dredged sand, the amount loaded by 
scraper and shovel is quite large. There are over 500 small 
sand pits in the state supplying local trade. Some of the 
principal uses of sand are for bedding cars, plaster, masonry, 
street making, and for the manufacture of artificial stone. 
(Figure 85) 

Gravel for roofing is obtained in Cass and Sarpy counties, 
and for ballast in Jefferson, Knox, Holt, and Cheyenne counties. 

Agricultural Resources. The state has four soil areas 
which correspond closely with the topographic regions. They 
are the Loess, Sand Hill, High Plains and the Bad Land 
regions. The soils vary in kind at different levels in the larger 
valleys, owing to the different kinds of rock which outcrop 
there ; the soils being weathered rock mixed with humus which 
is formed from plants. This arrangement of soils in the valleys 
gives what is called belted soils. (Figure 86) A valley farm 
may have alluvial, clayey and stony soils on it. each kind 
extending parallel with the valley. 

As the conditions of soil and water vary from place to place, 
so the forms of agriculture also vary. However, the positions 

4 Condra, G. E., Part 3 of Vol. 3, Nebraska Geol. Survey (in preparation). 



141 



THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA 



of the crop l^elts seem to be determined more by the distri- 
bution of rainfall than by any other condition. 

The ranches and farms are usually large and profitably 
worked, the first named often containing thousands of acres 
and the last hundreds of acres. Broad agricultural views are 
the order throughout the agricultural section. (Figure 87) 
The most fertile soils of the state are in the Loess Region, yet 
the cultivable lands of each soil area are readily tilled and 
usually quite rich in plant food. These conditions of soil 




Fig. 86. 



Ideal Section showing Belted Distribution of Soils in 
THE Republican Valley, Red Willow County 



assist in causing Nebraska's high rank in agriculture, the main 
forms of which are briefly described in this chapter.* 

Stock Raising. Nebraska ranks high in the production of 
live stock, the total value of which was about $150,000,000 in 
1906. In order of their importance the live stock are cattle, 
horses and mules, hogs and sheep. These are raised mostly on 

' Farmers' Bulletins, over two hundred in number, may be obtained from the 
Secretary of Agriculture, Washington. They treat a variety of agricultural sub- 
jects in brief and are among the best student references. 

The annual reports of the Nebraska State Boani of Agriculture, the Nebraska 
Dairymen's Association and the Nebraska Horticultural Society should be access- 
ible. Also the Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletins, University of Nebraska, 
Lincoln, and Bulletins on Soil, and the Year Books, Department of Agriculture, 
Washington, D. C. The Year Book can be obtained through Congressmen. 




143 




144 



SUMMARY OF RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES 145 



ranches which vary much in size and management. Few 
animals are raised on a small ranch, but they are given good 
care by their owner who usually lives in a small house sur- 
rounded by few improvemets. Saddle horses are used with 
which to drive and herd the cattle. Formerly, when the 



-* '■'■■■ ■ 






1 






1 



Fig. 89. Two Year Old Steers in Feeding at the Nebraska Ex- 
periment Station 
Photo by U. G. Cornell 

country was not fenced and the range was free, stock ran 
more at large. They are now grazed in pastures, yet the 
demand for good horsemanship has not entirely disappeared 
in the grazing districts of western Nebraska. The owners of 
large ranches employ riders who look after fences and the care 
of stock. On many of these ranches are well-improved homes. 



146 



THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA 



The western part of the state is often called 'Hhe cattle 
country". (P'igure 88) There the native grasses, though 
usually short or thin, serve as a basis for stock raising on the 
ranches. The grasses are very nutritious, curing on the sod in 
the fall and forming winter }msture. In many j^laces very little 



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Fig. 90. Feeding Hogs Alfalfa in the Platte Valley 

Photo by H. A. Mark 

prepared food is supplied to horses and cattle during the winter 
season. The stock is allowed to ''rustle", except when the 
snow is on, thus decreasing the need for forage and grain. 
The amount of free range has decreased, but the grade of 
cattle has improved, some of the finest herds now being found 
in the sand hills. Many cattle are shipped to the grass country 
and pastured there during the grazing season and later shipped 




147 



148 



THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA 



to the feed yards in the corn country and fattened for market. 
(Figure 89) 80 the stock feeding industry has considerable 
importance. The feed yards at Central City are the largest of 
their kind in the United States, over 20,000 cattle having been 
fed at those yards at one time. The feed yards show the 
relation of our grazing industries to corn raising. Besides 
this, many thousands of sheep are shipped to Nebraska from 




Fig. 92. 



South Omaha Stock Yards tn the Afternoon when few 
Cattle are in the Yards 



western and northwestern states and fed here for market on 
alfalfa, sugar beet pulp, hay and grain. Hoes are raised in 
large numbers on alfalfa, then fed a small amount of grain to 
finish them for market. In some cases they are shipped from 
alfalfa pastures to market without grain feeding. 

Though cattle raising is not confined to one region of the 
state, we may say that their feeding for market has its greatest 
importance within the corn belt. The hog belt has moved 
westward with alfalfa. (Figure 90) Few sheep are raised 
in Nebraska, though larger numbers are shipped in for feeding. 



SUMMARY OF RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES 



149 



(Figure 91) Horses and mules are raised for road farm, dray 
and speed purposes. 

Our cattle, hogs and sheep are shipped finally to the stock 
yards at South Omaha, Chicago, Sioux City, St. Joseph, Kansas 
City or Denver, where they are sold to packers and either 
slaughtered or exported "on the hoof". The South Omaha 
yards and packing 
houses are among the 
largest in the world. 
(Figure 92) Many 
products are manu- 
factured from each 
animal, some of them 
going back to the 
ranches and farms. 

Dairying. This 
industry has grown 
rapidly with the 
introduction of hand 
separators which make 
it possible to put the 
milk into marketable 
condition. Cream 
is separated on many ranches and farms and hauled in cans to 
shipping stations from whence it is taken regularly to centrally 
located creameries, the largest of which is at Lincoln. Railroad 
facilities are mostly favorable to the development of the dairy 
industry. Other helpful influences are cheap feed, pure 
water and good wagon roads. The industry is further pro- 
moted by instruction in the dairy school at the State University. 
The dairy herds are being improved and more care is given 
them now than formerly. (Figure 93) Majiy large dairy 
barns are scattered through the state. 




Fig. 93. Dairy Cow and a Modern Dairy 
Barn at Experiment Station, Univer- 
sity OF Nebraska, Lincoln 
PhotobyU.G: Cornell 




Fig. 94. Chickens, Ducks and Turkeys in Western Nebraska 

Photo by H. A. Mark 



_ \ 








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Fig. 95. Large Corn Raised on the Missouri Kiver Bottom near 

Peru 
150 




151 



152 



THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA. 



The })roductioii of cheese is small, the air being too warm 
and dry in our state, this industry doing beat in moist northern 
countries. 

Poultry Raising. Conditions in Nebraska are favorable 
to tlie ])rofitable ])ursuit of this industry. There is an abun- 
dance of natural food, while the climate and drainage con- 
ditions insure the 
health of fowls and 
their rapid growth at 
small expense. (Figure 
94.) Chickens are 
raised on nearly all 
farms and ranches, 
while turkeys, ducks 
and geese are found 
in smaller numbers 
and at fewer places. 
Poultry and eggs con- 
stitute an important 
})artof our food; they 
are shipped in large 
cfuantities to other 
Fig. 98. Grain Elevator at Ashland states, both east and 

west. The packing 
houses at South Omaha do a large business hi poultry 
and eggs. The birds are fattened in about two weeks at the 
packing houses, then slaughtered and exported. Chicken 
feeding has become a recognized industry. 

Grain Crops. Corn, wheat, oats, barley and rye are the 
principal cereals cultivated.^ The eastern part of the state 
lies in the great corn belt (Figure 95), but in the western part 




"The Bulletins of the Agricultural Experiment Station of Nebraska may be 
obtained by writing the Director of the Experiment Station at Lincoln. 





j^^^^^B.^,.,^ 1^ ^afll 



Fig. 99. Flouring Mill at Albion 



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Fig. 100. One of the Buildings at the Nebraska Experiment 
Station, where Crops are Studied and Students are Taught 
Agriculture 

Photo by U. G. Cornell 

153 



154 



THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA 



the rainfall is too light for corn })ro(Uiction according to the 
present methods of cultivation. Wheat and similar small 
grains mature at the close of the season of greatest moisture, 
hence they do well farther west than corn, which does not finish 
its growiih until later in the year. Then the growing season, 
free from frosts, is shorter to the west. 

Each of the principal grain crops grows well in the Loess 
Region from the eastern (Figure 96) to somewhat beyond the 




Fig. 101, 



Alfalfa Scene in the North Platte Valley 
Photo by H. A. Mark 



central (Figure 97) part of the state, giving oi:)portiuiity for 
diversified farming and the rotation of crops. It is here that 
one may see many well-kept farm buildings surrounded by 
orchards, groves, feed lots, pastures, hay land and fields of 
grain. These are farms and farm homes. 

Winter wheat is an important crop in the southern and 
southeastern counties, while spring wheat and barley are 
raised in the northern and western parts of the state. The 
oat crop is generally rotated with corn and wheat. The 
decrease in rainfall at harvest time makes it possible for 
farmers to save most of each crop. Much of the corn is fed 
to live stock, while most of the wheat, after cleaning in 



SUMMARY OF RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES 155 




Fig. 102. Trees in Bloom in the 
Hartley Orchard, near 
Lincoln 



elevators here (Figure 98), is 

shipped to Omaha, Minne- 
apolis and Kansas City. 

There are many flour and grist 

mills in Nebraska and the 

amount of grain which they 

grind seems to be increasing. 

(Figure 99) The value of the 

grain crops is about $125,000,- 

000 a year. 

Investigations carried on at 

the Nebraska Experiment 

Station at the University of 

Nebraska (Figure 100) have 

resulted in the introduction of varieties of wheat and oats 

which grow well in the dryer regions of the state. By this 

means yields have been increased and the grain belts enlarged. 

The yield of corn per acre is increasing, due to careful seed 

selection and to improvements in cultivation. 
Hay and Forage Crops. In Rock and Holt counties large 

quantities of wild hay are 
cut, baled and shipped. This 
product is of importance 
throughout the state, the bot- 
tom lands yielding mbst of the 
supply. Alfalfa, our greatest 
hay and forage crop (Figure 
101), is now grown in every 
county of the state, producing 
from two to four cuttings each 
year. It grows best under 
irrigation where the soil is 
deep, loamy and smooth, yet 




Fig. 103. Making Cider in East- 
ern Nebraska 



156 



THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA 



lar*»;e crops are produced without irrigation along the Platte 
and Repu])licaii valleys where the water table is not too 
close to the surface. It is also grown on the uplands. 
After a good stand has been secured, the plant resists drouth 
and freezing and needs little or no cultivation. It makes 
good stock feed, being highly nutritious. On some of the 
dryer lands less valuable forage crops are raised for rough 




Fig. 104. I^p^et Sugar Factory at Leavitt, near Fremont 



winter feed for stock. The hay and forage crops rank next to 
wheat in value. 

Fruit Raising. Wild fruits of several kinds do well on the 
more broken lands of each topographic region. Some of our 
soils are adapted to peaches, plums, cherries, grapes, straw- 
berries and apples, and in many localities these and other 
fruits are raised for local use. Commercial orcharding is an 
important pursuit at several places, where peach, apple (Figures 
102 and 103) and cherry orchards cover entire farms. The 
most extensive orcharding is carried on near Nehawka, Falls 
City, Lincoln,- Valley, Blair, Wymore, Kearney, Beaver City 
and McCook. 



SUMMARY OF RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES 



157 



Sugar Beets and Beet Sugar. The acreage of sugar beets 
is increasing. Nebraska now has two large beet sugar fac- 
tories, one at Grand Island and the other at Leavitt, a station 
near Fremont. 

The loose ^ smooth bench land soils of the Platte, Republican 
and Elkhorn valleys are well suited to the cultivation and 
gro\vth of sugar beets. 
The best results are 
now obtained under 
irrigation in the sub- 
humid region where 
the sunshine is 
greatest. 

The crop^ is grown 
at a number of places 
and shipped to the 
beet sugar factories 
(Figure 104), the 
processes in the mak- 
ing of beet sugar be- 
ing rather difficult to 

understand. The factories run from the time the beets begin 
to arrive in the fall until about the first of February, the time 
during which they operate being called the '^ campaign". 
The beets are weighed, cleaned and cut into small bits. 
Their juice is then extracted and made into sugar of commercial 
form. Russians and Germans, from long familiarity with beet 
culture in the old country, are the laborers usually employed 
in the western beetfields. 

Specialized Farming. Vegetable gardening is practiced 
quite extensively near some of the larger cities. Celery is 
grown near Kearney, Central City and Hebron, while popcorn 
is an important product at North Loup and a few other Localities 




Fig. 105. Potato Field near Holdrege 



158 



THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA 



ill the northern and northeastern parts of the state. Garden 

seeds are raised extensively at Lincoln, Ashland and other 

points, and sugar corn is grown largely for canning purposes. 

Potatoes for home use are now grown in eveiy county of 





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Fig. 106. Harvesting Potatoes in Western Nebraska. Photo by 

H. A. Mark 



the state, and as a farm crop in the northwestern and western 
counties. (Figures 105 & 106) Many car loads are shipped 
each year from Beaver Crossing, Scotts Bluff, Hemingford. 
Chadron, Rushville and Gordon. 



SUMMARY OF RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES 159 



QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 

1. What is a resource? An industry? 

2. Which is the more important resource, good water or good 
soil? 

3. Why is much ice put up in Nebraska? 

4. Why are most stone quarries in valleys? 

5. What qualities are necessary in good building-stone? 

6. What is a "dredge" and why is the dredge shown in Figure 84 
called a clam dredge? 

7. How many and what uses are made of sand in your vicinity? 

8. Why is " artificial stone" so named? How is it made? 

9. How is the humus of soil formed? 

10. What kinds of soil are found near your school? 

11. Make a collection of the principal kinds of soil near your home. 

12. What is forage? Name the principal kinds of forage produced 
and used in your vicinity. 

13. Why are cattle raised in one part of Nebraska and fitted for 
market in another part? 

- 14. Give two reasons why sheep raised in Montana and Wyoming 
are fattened for market in Nebraska. 

15. Make a list of products obtained from cattle. 

16. Many farmers sell their live stock "on the hoof" and then buy 
the products manufactured from them, for use in their homes. Why is 
this done? 

17. What is meant by a " corn belt " ? A " wheat belt " ? By what 
means are these belts being extended in Nebraska? 

18. Where in Nebraska are the most apples grown? Peaches? 
Plums? Cherries? Strawberries? 

19. What conditions of soil and climate are most favorable for the 
cultivation of sugar beets? 

20. Why is potato raising so extensively carried on in western 
Nebraska? 

21. What is meant by "specialized farming"? 

22. What is Nebraska's most important resource? Industry? 

23. What industry is being developed most rapidly? 



CHAPTER XIV 
METHODS OF RECLAMATION 

Reclamation is an important factor in geography, as it 
makes otherwise worthless lands valuable. Much of the 
arable land of our state is now farmed extensively, including 
soils which were once regarded as unfit for the production of 
farm crops, being dry, wet or sandy. 

The principal methods now employed in Nebraska for the 
improvement or reclamation of soils deficient in the ways just 
named are described in this chapter. 

Irrigation. Most of us have seen irrigation practiced in some 
form. It is the application of water to the soil and crops by 
artificial means and is employed usually in dry countries or in 
countries with dry seasons. Irrigation in Nebraska is largely 
in the sub-humid or western part, yet in every county it is 
used to some extent, though not always profitably.^ The 
water is obtained principally from rivers, also from shallow 
wells, artesian wells, springs and ponds or lakes. Lawns and 
small gardens are irrigated by hose and spray. But the water 
applied to large fields flows from rivers through ditches or 
canals and their laterals to the land to be irrigated. The 
ditches are made large or small and long or short, depending 
upon the supply of water and the amount of land to be re- 
claimed. Since the air of western Nebraska is dry, evapor- 
ation is excessive, and successfiil irrigation requires an abun- 
dance of water. Certain ditches constructed without regard 
to the water supply are of no use during the irrigation season 

^References in Water Supply Papers and Professional Papers, 17 and 32 U. S. 
G. S. 

160 



METHODS OF RECLAMATION 161 

because of a lack of water. The surest irrigation from small 
streams is near their head waters. Irrigation along rivers is 
confined mostly to their valleys, because of the nearness to 
water and of the presence of bench lands there which are 
easily irrigated. (Figure 107) Irrigation from wells is 
employed on both the bottom and the uplands, but less exten- 
sively than from rivers. 

The government is constructing a large dam, The Path- 
finder, across the North Platte River in Wyoming to hold back 
the natural flow of the stream in the springtime. This 
impounded water will be sufficient to irrigate much of the 
upland in addition to that in the valley. The canals are large 
and long, extending into Nebraska. 

Much land along the North Platte in western Nebraska is 
now profitably irrigated. At places most of the bench and 
bottom lands are under ditch, growing principally alfalfa, 
wheat and oats where formerly was only grazing land. The 
water supply of the South Platte, Niobrara, Lodge Pole and 
Republican rivers is scant and uncertain during summer, 
consequently this method of reclamation is not carried on 
extensively from those streams. 

Just how much of the state's dry land may be reclaimed for 
agriculture by irrigation is not known. It will not be possible 
however, to irrigate a very large part of the High Plains, as 
the water supply is limited. 

Drainage. This is the opposite of irrigation. Along the 
Big Nemaha, Missouri, Platte and Elkhorn valleys certain 
bottom lands which once were covered with marshes and lakes 
have been drained and reclaimed for grain growing. A long 
ditch in Burt County will drain several thousand acres of 
Missouri bottom land and thus reclaim it for farming purposes. 
Numerous ditches near Falls City and Rulo, Richardson 
County, carry the flood water from fields formerly devoted to 





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162 



METHODS OF RECLAMATION 



163 




Fig. 108. Cotton-wood Grove at Fremont 



grazing. In all, many thousand acres of land can be improved 
by drainage. 

In the lake region of the sand hills south of Valentine, ranch 
owners have proposed to lower the water in certain basins 
and valleys by draining them northward through ditches to 



164 



THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA. 



Schlagle Canyon. This may make it possible to grow alfalfa 
where the valleys are now covered with water. 

Forestation. This method of reclamation has been used 
in each region of the state. The first tree planting was on what 
were called tree or timber claims. Many of the trees thus 




Fig. 109. 



Catalpa Post Timber near Pawnee City 
Photo by Chas. A. Scott 



planted were not adapted to the climate, neither were they 
properly cared for, being exposed to injury from prairie fires 
and to be browsed over by cattle. Consequently the tree claim 
attempts at forestation proved failures in most cases, at least 
when the object was to thereby receive title to government 
land 



METHODS OF RECLAMATION 



165 



Forestation proved most successful in the eastern and 
and central parts of the state, where we now have many large 
groves (Figure 108) and windbreaks which are a result of 
private planting. In some cases post timber has been grown 
with profit. (Figure 109) 

It is now thought that forestation may become an important 
form of reclamation in the sand hills. In April, 1902, the 
Government established the Dismal River and the Niobrara 




Fig. 110. The Nebraska Forest Reserves: 1, The Niobrara; 2, 
Dismal River; and 3, The North Platte Forest Reserve 



forest reserves, the first containing 90,000 acres and the other 
126,000 acres of sand hill land. (Figure 110.) At the same 
time the North Platte Reserve was set aside with 342,000 
acres of similar land. There is good evidence that pines and 
cedars may be grown in the sand hills. Such trees occur here 
and there in the region, but the most favorable evidence in 
this region is found on the Bruner ranch, where a beautiful 
grove of pines was planted about fourteen years ago. (Figure 

111) 

The forester in charge of the Nebraska reserves superintends 
the raising and transplanting of millions of small pine seedlings. 




Fig. 111. Pinks OiV thf. Bruner Ranch, Holt County 
Photo by R. A. Emerson 

166 



METHODS OF RECLAMATION 167 

They are raised in seedbeds (Figures 112-113) and transferred 
to the hills when two or three years old. Ranch owners in the 
Sand Hill Region, encouraged by the success of the planting on 
the reserves, are now putting out small private groves. In the 
year 1905, over 50,000 trees, on over 50 ranches, were thus 
planted. 

If forestation of the sand hills proves successful our state 
will eventually have a valuable resource where once the land 
was regarded as waste. It will be a means of solving Nebraska's 
greatest need, that of fuel and lumber. Since the trees grow 
slowly it will take 15 years or more for them to become large 
enough for firewood and fully 100 years for use as saw timber. 

As the sand hills become covered with trees we should expect 
a desirable change in the appearance of the landscape, also 
changes in the associated plant and animal life. The change 
will be from grass land life to timber land life. 

Dry Farming. The best-known method of dry farming is 
the Campbell system. By this and similar methods moisture 
is stored in the soil and kept from evaporating freely into the 
air at dry times. This method of cultivation is not suited to 
really dry land, but to semi-aricl conditions. Cultivation 
at the right times produces a mulch of loose soil which checks 
evaporation. (Figure 114) The moisture is kept from escap- 
ing freely into the air and caused to do its duty in the growth 
of crops. By what is called summer fallowing farmers conserve 
the rainfall of two years, raising a crop every other year. 
This method is practiced on thedryest lands, but it demands 
much labor. It is now a known fact, that certain drouth- 
resisting crops may be raised profitably on the High Plains, by 
methods of cultivation adapted to the rainfall and humidity, 
even when the mean annual rainfall is more than 15 inches. 

Drouth Resisting Crops. In certain foreign countries, 
notably southern Russia, grain and forage crops have been 




Fig. 112. General View of Seed Beds and Buildings at the Dis- 
mal River Forest Reserve, near Halsey 
Photo by Chas. A. Scott 




^WmMw^'''^' 



Fig. 113. Interior View of Seed Beds at Dismal River Forest 
Reserve, SHOWING Small Pine Seedlings in Rows. The Roof- 
like Lath covering is to keep out a Part of the Sun Light 
Photo by Chas. A. Scott 
168 



METHODS OF RECLAMATION 



169 



grown for ages, under practically the same conditions of soil 
and rainfall that are found in the dry est parts of Nebraska. 
The crops have become drouth-resisting. The seeds of a 
few of these plants were secured by the Nebraska Experiment 
Station a few years ago, and planted in western Nebraska 
with good results. Brome grass, Kherson oats, Macaroni 




Fig. 114. Corn Raised by Dry Farming Methods in Western Ne- 
braska. The Foreground has been Summer Fallowed 



wheat and Speltz, all drouth-resisting, were imported and 
their seed furnished to a number of farmers who have since 
grown the crops widely and profitably over the High Plains 
Region, but most successfully when cultivated by dry farming 
methods. Brome grass yields far more pasture than our 
native grasses of the sub-humid region. Macaroni wheat and 



170 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA 

Kherson oats produce large crops where the rainfall is scant. 
The raising of drouth-resisting crops can be practiced over a 
large area of Nebraska, where grains accustomed to humid 
conditions do not thrive. 

Alfalfa is usually regarded as a drouth-resisting plant, yet 
it growls best where there is an abundance of gromid water. 
However certain dry land varieties of alfalfa are well adapted 
to the uplands of Nebraska, where the annual rainfall is 
between 15 and 20 inches. 



QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 

1. What is reclamation, and what are its purposes? 

2. Compare irrigation and drainage. 

3. Have the Rocky Mountains anything to do with irrigation in 
Nebraska? 

4. Where is irrigation the more successful, in a very dry, or in a sub- 
humid region? 

5. Why can't all of western Nebraska be irrigated? 

6. Why did tree claim forestation fail? 

7. If pines like the ones shown in Figure 111, can be grown in the 
sand hills, why have ranch men been slow to set out trees? 

8. Why is dry farming so named? A drouth-resisting crop? 

9. What is a mulch? Summer fallowing? 

10. Are any drouth-resisting crops grown near your home? Do 
such crops grow well in eastern Nebraska? 

11. Why is alfalfa called our greatest forage crop? 

12. Give four reasons why central and western Nebraska should 
increase in population. Would such a development benefit Omaha and 
Lincoln? If so, how? 



CHAPTER XV 
CITIES AND TOWNS 

A municipality with 1,500 people is called a city in Nebraska. 
The cities are grouped as first, second and third class, with 
divisions under each class, Omaha and Lincoln each forming a 
division of the first class. 

Our cities and towns are places of business, of transportation, 
manufacture and trade. Schools, churches, a central park, 
and wide, well-kept streets parallel with the section lines are 
common to most of them. 

Several reasons for their growth may be given. The largest 
places are in the eastern or oldest and richest part of the state. 
County seats usually grow faster than other towns in a county, 
and the location of a state or other important institution in a 
town becomes also a factor of growth. The presence of a rail- 
road usually is favorable to growth and development, many of 
the oldest towns which did not become railroad points finally 
being abandoned. Division points on railroads have an advan- 
tage over other places. The topography^ and water supply 
have to an extent determined the location and development of 
.several cities and towns. There are no places of any size in 
the Bad Land and Sand Hill regions. A few towns on the 
High Plains give promise of considerable importance, but with 
few exceptions the cities of Nebraska are confined to the Loess 
Region. 

Besides the influences just named we should note also that 

IStudy the topographic and hydrographic environs of the principal cities and 
towns, by means of the maps shown on Plate III. Where possible determine 
altitude, slope, drainage conditions, etc. 

171 



172 



THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA 



enterprising townsmen are a factor. The wide-awake places 
have been favored in the location of institutions, whether 
county, state, or of a private nature. 

For the purpose of description, the cities and towns are 




Fig. 115. Burlington (C. B. & Q.) Station at Omaha 



grouped according to the drainage basins of the state. The 
population when given is based on the school census of 1905. 
The altitude is placed in a bracket, and usually is for the doorsill 
of the main railroad station. 

Along the Missouri River. The oldest towns of our state 
are along this water way, the largest being where railroads, 
crossing the river, have division points on the Nebraska side. 
Ponca (114.^), Dakota (iio2) and Tekamah (loeo) are county 
seats with railroad and agricultural advantages. 

Blair (losi), the county seat of Washington County, is favor- 






^^ ^ 




- ■.i)\\covsv\]. lii.ri-T.s 



^■A-^- - ^?» 



A- 



\\ 













Plate IV. Outline Map of Omaha 
173 



174 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA 

ably located, overlooking the Missouri river. It has two rail- 
roads, one of which crosses the Missouri. 

Omaha (io34), with a population of about 120,000, is the 
metropolis and only metropolitan city of Nebraska. (Plate IV) 
It has several trans-continental and a number of more local 



Fig. 116. North Wing of Omaha High School Building 

railroads, and the Omaha, Lincoln and Beatrice electric line. 
The Burlington (Figure 115) and the Union depots are very 
fine structures. The Platte Valley, a few miles west of the 
city, is easily reached by the principal railroads, making of 
Omaha the "gateway" city of Nebraska. 



CITIES AND TOWNS 175 

Omaha was laid out and made the Territorial capital in 1854. 
With the coming of the Union Pacific railroad, 1866-1869, the 
town secured a lasting advantage over other competing river 
points. Since that time it has grown rapidly, becoming a 
great railroad, manufacturing and wholesale center, and an 
important distributing point. The shipping and trade portions 
of the city are on the lower and smoother ground, and the 
residence districts on the higher land. 

The city obtains an abundant and sure supply of good water 
from the Missouri. It is well drained, lying on the Missouri 
Valley slope between altitudes 1,000 and 1,175 feet. The 
improvements are extensive, there being a number of parks, 
over 85 miles of paved streets and about as many of street 
railways. Some of the principal buildings rank well with 
those of the largest eastern cities^ the high school building being 
.especially fine. (Figure 116) Omaha is headquarters for 
one department of the United States Army; it also is the seat 
of Creighton University (Catholic) . 

South Omaha (ii24), with nearly 30,000 people, is the third 
city of Nebraska. It is an outgrowth of Omaha, and has large 
stock yards and packing houses where many thousands of 
cattle, swine, sheep and chickens are shipped each year from 
parts of Nebraska and adjacent states. The animals are 
slaughtered and turned into many products. The stock yards 
(Figure 92), packing houses and similar plants cover more than 
300 acres, furnishing employment for several thousand men. 

Bellevue (985) ten miles south of Omaha, is the seat of 
Belle vue College (Presbyterian). It is the oldest permanent 
town in our state. 

Plattsmouth (968) the county seat and largest city in Cass 
county, is situated on a bold Missouri Valley slope near the 
mouth of the Platte River. It has two railroads, the Burlington 
and the Missouri Pacific, the former having a large bridge 



176 



THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA 



across the Alissoiiri River. The city is the "gateway" to the 
lower Platte. Among its industries are machine shops, flouring 
mills, brick yards and cigar factories. 

Nebraska City, one of the oldest, best kno\Mi and largest 
cities of Nebraska, is the county seat of Otoe County. It was 
the home of Hon. J. Sterling Morton, the father of ''Arbor 



■ '%f'''^ 








-'*^vl*i.J 


^^ ^ 



Fig. 117. View in Arbor Lodge, Nebraska City 

Photo by C. E. Dwyer 



Day." (Figure 117) The city has three railroads, one of 
which, the Burlington, crosses the river and connects with the 
Iowa and Missouri divisions of that system. Among the 
industries are stock yards, packing houses, brick yards, eleva- 
tors, canning factories and a brewery. The surrounding 
country is rich agriculturally. The Nebraska Institute for 
the Blind is located here. 

Feru (902) is about fourteen miles below Nebraska City. 



CITIES AND TOWNS 177 

Here the State Normal School has its beautiful and picturesque 
location overlooking the Missouri. 

Rulo (842) is in the southeastern corner of the state where 
the Burlington railroad crosses the Missouri River. 

There are several important and growing cities in the smaller 
tributary valleys of the Missouri. Hartington (i385), the 
county seat of Cedar County, Weeping Water (io75) in Cass 
County, and Auburn (1051), the county seat of Nemaha 
County, aj-e the best known of these. 

In the Big Nemaha Valley. Falls City (898) is the largest 
city in this group. It is the county seat of Richardson County 
and is on the Kansas City lines of the Burlington and the 
Missouri Pacific railroads. Located in a rich agricultural 
region and prominent in cattle and fruit shipping, it has good 
improvements, produce houses, flouring mills, large ice houses, 
a canning factory and one creamery. 

Humboldt (982), Table Rock (1023), Pawnee (1175), and 
Tecumseh (iii4) are in rich agricultural districts. Pawnee, 
the county seat of Pawnee County and Tecumseh, the county 
seat and largest place in Johnson County, each have two rail- 
roads. 

In the Platte Drainage Basin. There are many growing 
places in this group, most of the towns and cities having 
their locations on alluvial terraces which afford good drainage 
and ideal positions, except where the river is building up its bed. 
By examining plates I and II we see that all of the larger 
places in the Platte Valley, except Ashland, occupy positions 
north of the river. In most cases they are located where the 
tributary valleys join the Platte. These waterways also are 
railroad ways and rich tributary country for trade. 

Ashland (1086) is located on a terrace between Clear and 
Salt Creek valleys, where they enter the Platte Valley. It 
has three railroads, an interurban line, one elevator and good 



178 



THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA 



P^^r- ■ 


, .. , ,^ 


1.1.... ., 




i- 


..-'HavH>).-t( ^__-''' 


1 


! .\'ro].x^;.:- --^"^^ 


p 




i 


:| 




.:;;^,:x^__^_^ 



Plate V. Map 



T.TXrOLN AND THE LINCOLN BaSIN 



water power used to operate a flouring mill, while near by are 
some of the largest ice houses in the world. 

Lincoln (ii48) with a population of about 50,000, is the 
capital of the state and the county seat of Lancaster County. 
(Plate V) It is one of the leading railroad centers of the west 
with the lines of five systems radiating from it in various 
directions. Besides these an interurban electric line connects 
with Omaha and Beatrice. The city has many miles of 
electric street railway. The railroads have easy access to the 



CITIES AND TOWNS 



179 



higher lands south, west and north of the city through a system 
of valleys which center toward the Lincoln basin. The main 
line of the Burlington enters from the northeast through Salt 
Creek Valley. Lincoln lies on the slopes of this valley between 
1,140 and 1,200 feet above sea level, the shipping and wholesale 
districts being on the lower benches and the retail and residence 
sections on still higher lands to the east and southeast. 




Fig. 118. Epworth Park, near Lincoln, where a Large Assembly 
is held annually 

Photo by U. G. Cornell 



The water supply is derived from the Dakota sandstone. 
The water is artesian in kind, entering large wells under weak 
pressure; it is of good quality, free from pollution. 

Lincoln manufactures brooms, leather goods, iron goods, 
furniture, flour and various kinds of wearing apparel. One of 
the largest creameries in th6 world is located here. As a 
distributing point for farm machinery, the city ranks very 
high. Lincoln has been widely advertised as the home of Hon. 



180 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA 

William Jennings Bryan and is a well-known publishing and 
educational center, being the seat of the University of Nebraska, 
while in the suburbs are Wesleyan University (Methodist) at 
University Place, Cotner University (Christian) at Bethany 
Heights, and Union College (Adventist) at College View. The 
Nebraska Epworth Assembly meets each year in its beautiful 
park (Figure 118) southwest of Lincoln, the attendance varying 
from 3,000 to 5,000 per day. 

The suburb, Havelock, contains the Burlington machine 
shops employing on an average 400 men. Beyond Lincoln's 
limits to the south and southwest are the State Penitentiary 
and Insane Hospital. 

Wahoo (1187) is the county seat of Saunders County. It has 
three railroads and is located at the edge of the fertile Todd 
Valley. 

Fremont (ii98) the county seat of Dodge County, is an 
important railroad town in a rich agricultural district. The 
population is over 10,000. It is on the main line of the Union 
Pacific and is reached by different lines of the Northwestern 
and by the Great Northern. Its manufacturing industries 
have considerable importance, and the city drawls a big whole- 
sale and retail trade from the Elkhorn Valley. Many pam- 
phlets, paper^s and books are published in Fremont, where is 
located also the Fremont Normal College. 

West Point (I3i3), Madison (i580), Neligh (i744) and O'Neill 
(i97o) are growing county seats in the Elkhorn basin, while 
Newman Grove (i746) is a thriving town in Madison County. 

Wayne (1450) is the county seat of Wayne County and the 
seat of the Wayne Normal School. 

Norfolk (1525), an important division point on the North- 
western, is near the junction of the north and south forks of the 
Elkhorn. Many sugar beets are raised on the farms near by. 
One of the state asylums is located here. 



CITIES AND TOWNS 181 

Schuyler (1351) and Central City (1704) are county seats 
each having a large local trade. 

Columbus (1448), the county seat of Platte County, is near 
the junction of the Loup with the Platte. It is a railroad 
center with large retail and considerable wholesale trade. 
The public improvements are above those of most cities of 
of the same size. 

Grand Island (I866), with a population of nearly 10,000, is 
the county seat of Hall County. It is the terminus of the 
St. Joe and Grand Island railroad and is well served by the 
Union Pacific and Burlington. The city has a growing retail, 
jobbing and wholesale trade. Located in a rich alfalfa, sugar 
beet, wheat, corn and cattle country, this city has a beet sugar 
factory, stock yards and grain elevators. Here also is located 
Grand Island College (Baptist), and the Soldiers' Home. 

Kearney (2152), the "midway" city, is a railroad center and 
the county seat of Buffalo County. It is situated in a fertile 
region at the junction of Wood River and Platte River valleys, 
and has water-power, fine improvements, a variety of industries 
and a large trade. It is the seat of the Kearney State Normal 
and the State Industrial School for boys. 

Towns of considerable importance are located where the 
different valleys of the Loup system join their trunk valley. 
Genoa (1579), Fullerton (I629), St. Paul (i796) and Ravenna 
(1997) occupy such positions. Genoa has a National Indian 
school. 

Fullerton is the county seat of Nance County and St. Paul 
of Howard County. The remaining larger county seats in 
these basins are Albion (i748). Broken Bow (2477), Ord (2051) 
and Loup (2089). 

Westward in the Platte basin the county seats and largest 
towns are North Platte (2803), Lexington (2385), OgalaUa (3211), 
Sidney, Scotts Bluff, Chappell (3696) and Kimball (4697). 



182 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA 

North Platte (-2803) is the county seat and largest city in 
Lincoln County. Here is located one of the Nebraska Experi- 
ment Sub-Stations. With the development of the North 
Platte Valley, this city has promise of rapid growth. It is on 
the main line of the Union Pacific and is the place on that road 
where time changes from Central to Mountain time going 
westward, or in the reverse order eastward. West bound 
passengers set their watches back one hour. Those traveling 
eastward set their watches ahead one hour. 

Sidney (4090) is in the Lodge Pole Valley where the Burling- 
ton railroad crosses the main line of the Union Pacific. 

Scotts Bluff is in an important irrigation section of the 
North Platte A^alley. 

In the Blue River Basins. There is a good town or city 
wherever a railroad crosses either one of the Blue River valleys. 

Seward (1435) in the Big Blue Valley, is the county seat of 
Seward County. It has water power and three railroads. 

Milford (1403) is the site of the Soldiers and Sailors Home. 
It is also a popular summer resort. 

Crete (i353) has two railroads, water power, flouring mills, 
and large nurseries. It is the home of Doane College (Congre- 
gational). 

Wilber (1325) also in the Big Blue Valley, is the county seat 
of Saline County. 

Beatrice (1256), with a population of over 10,000 is one of 
Nebraska's best built cities. It is a commercial center with 
three railroads and an interurban line, and is the county seat 
of Gage County, the location of a large Chautauqua Assembly, 
and of the State Institute for Feeble Minded Youth. The city has 
fine water power (Figure 28), large flouring mills, brick yards, 
machine shops, and shows a large retail and wholesale trade. 

Wymore (1222), next to Beatrice, is the most important 
railroad center in the Big Blue Valley. The city was located 



CITIES AND TOWNS 183 

mainly with respect to the Denver Une of the Burlington rail- 
road which passes through a small valley here in order to reach 
the higher land to the west. Large stone quarries and crushers 
are operated in this vicinity. 

Fairhury (i3i4) the county seat of Jefferson County, is the 
largest city in the Little Blue Valley. It is located on naturally 
paved slopes between 1310 and 1400 feet in altitude, having 
water power, flouring mills, sand and gravel pits, artificial 
stone plants, brick yards and three railroads. The high 
school building is one of the best in our state. 

Hebron (1458) the county seat of Thayer County, has two 
railroads also water power from the Little Blue. 

Nelson (i683) is the county seat of Nuckolls County, a 
terminus of the Nelson line of the Rock Island railroad and on 
the Burlington. 

On the Loess Plains. Hastings (1932) the county seat of 
Adams County, is the largest city in this group, the population 
being over 10,000. The city has good railroad advantages 
with the Burlington, Northwestern, Missouri Pacific and the 
St. Joe and Grand Island lines radiating from it in various 
directions, giving a large area for retail and wholesale trade. 
The city has large elevators, manufacturing industries, and is 
the site of Hastings College (Presbyterian) and of the Insane 
Asylum for Incurables. 

York (1633) the county seat of York County has a popu- 
lation of more than 5,000 and is in one of the finest farming 
districts in our state. It has three railroads, elevators, foun- 
dries, a large trade and many public improvements. York 
College (United Brethern) is here. 

Aurora (i792), the county seat of Hamilton County, has 
two railroads and similar advantages to those of York. 

David City (i6i7), the county seat of Butler County,is located 
in a rich farming region and has three railroads. 



184 THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA 

Friend (i558), Exeter (i607), Fairmont (i64i), Sutton 
(1676), and Harvard (i804) are thriving cities on the main line 
of the Burhngton. Except the first-named each has a second 
railroad. 

Geneva (i644), the county seat of Fillmore, has two railroads 
and is the seat of the Girls' Industrial School. 

Clay Center is the county seat of Clay County. 

Holdrege (2344) and Minden (21 62) are rapidly growing 
county seats in a fine wheat region. Each has two railroads, 
with elevators, brick yards and other important industries. 

In the Republican Valley. These towns and cities all 
are favorably located on terraces north of the river. The 
county seats are Red Cloud (i687), Bloomington (1845), Alma 
(1939), Beaver City (in Beaver Valley) (2147), McCook 
(2506), Trenton (2677), and Benkelman (2968). The principal 
railway centers are Superior (1572), McCook and Oxford (2074). 
Water power is found at Superior, Franklin (I817), Orleans 
(1993), Arapahoe (2i73), and Cambridge (2258). Irrigation is 
practiced most near Benkelman, Culbertson (2565), McCook 
and Indianola (2372). McCook is one of the most important 
railroad centers between Lincoln and Denver, as the Burlington 
has a division point, round house, and machine shops there. 
For that road it marks the change from Central to Mountain 
time. 

On the High Plains. These towns are usually small and 
far apart. 

Alliance (3958), the county seat of Box Butte County, is 
the largest and most important city on the High Plains. It is 
a division point of the Burlington railroad and has a big trade 
in a counti-y devoted largely to grazing. It is the point on the 
Billings line of the Burlington where the change is made 
between Central and Mountain time. The railroad machine 
shops here employ a large number of men. 



CITIES AND TOWNS 185 

Crawford (3670), in the White River Valley, is located at 
the crossing of the Burlington and Northwestern railroads. 
Fort Robinson is near this town. 

Chadron (3363), the county seat of Dawes County, is on the 
Northwestern railroad. It draws trade from a large area. 

Valentine (258i), the county seat of Cherry County, is 
located on a table land between the Minnachaduza and Nio- 
brara valleys. Fort Niobrara is four miles to the east. 

Long Pine (2399) is the point on the Black Hills line of the 
Northwestern railroad where the change is made between 
Central and Mountain time. 

QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES 

1. Why have some cities of Nebraska grown faster than others? 

2. How do railroads affect towns and cities? 

3. Why are the largest towns in the Loess Region? 

4. Why are towns far apart at places in Nebraska? 

5. Why has Omaha grown faster and larger than Lincoln? 

6. Are most cities and towns of Nebraska in valleys or on uplands? 

7. Under what conditions do towns in western Nebraska grow 
most rapidly? 

8. In what ways is a river of advantage to a city? 

9. What town of Nebraska has the highest altitude? The lowest? 

10. Compare Omaha, Lincoln, Beatrice, Kearney, North Platte, and 
Sidney in altitude. 

11. Compare Valentine, North Platte and McCook in altitude. 



INDEX. 



Agriculture, 2, 142. 
Agricultural education, 130. 
Agricultural resources, 142. 
Albion, 181. 
Alfalfa, 155, 170. 
Alliance, 184. 
Alluvium, 16. 
Alma, 184. 

Altitude of State, 6, 172. 
Anemometer, 24. 
Arapahoe, 184. 
Area of State, 4, 114. 
Arikarie Fall, 60. 
Artesian wells, 49. 
Ashland, 158, 177. 
Auburn, 177. 
Aurora, 183. 

Bad Land Region, 109. 
Bald Peak, 103. 
Ballast, 139. 
Barbour, E. H., 113. 
Barograph, 24. 
Barometer, 24. 
Basins, 55, 72, 88, 109. 
Beatrice, 12, 13, 182. 
Beaver City, 156, 184. 
Beaver Crossing, 158. 
Beet sugar, 157. 
Bellevue, 175. 
Bench land, 75. 
Benkelman, 184. 
Benton formations, 14, 19. 



Bessey, C. E., 105. 
Black Hills, 11, 13, 123. 
Blair, 156, 172. 
Blizzards, 29. 
Bloomington, 184. 
Blow-outs, 88. 
Blue rivers, 54, 68. 
Blue Springs, 12. 
Bluffs, 15, 76. 
Bottom lands, 73. 
Boundaries, 5, 114. 
Boulder areas, 83. 
Bowlders, 16, 21, 83. 
Box Butte Plains, 99, 110. 
Brick, 141. 
Broken Bow, 181. 
Brome grass, 169. 
Brule clay, 110. 
Bryan, Hon. Wm. J., 180. 
Buffalo, 115, 116, 119. 
Buttes, 100. 

Canyons, 75, 100. 
Carboniferous rocks, 10, 12, 18. 
Castle Rock, 104. 
Cattle, 146, 175. 
Celery, 157. 
Cement rock, 140. 
Central City, 148, 157, 181. 
Chadron, 158, 185. 
Cheyenne Plains, 98. 
Chinook winds, 34. 
Cities, 171. 



187 



188 



THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA 



Clay, 13, 15, 16, 18, 49, 96, 140. 

Clay Center, 184. 

Climate, 33. 

Clouds, 28. 

Cloudiness, 24, 34. 

Coal, 10, 18, 134. 

Columbus, 181. 

Corn, 154. 

Court House Rock, 103, 104. 

Coyotes, 125. 

Crawford, 185. 

Crete, 182. 

Culbertson, 184. 

Cyclones, 25. 

Dairying, 149. 

Dakota formation, 12, 13, 19. 

David City, 183. 

Development, 114. 

Dismal River, 65. 

Drainage, 43, ^4, 52, 53, 55, 89, 

161. 
Drouth-resisting crops, 167. 
Drouths, 92. 
Dry farming, 126, 167. 
Dune sand, 16. 
Dunes, 86. 
Dust clouds, 24. 
Dust storms, 29. 



Excursions, 3. 

Experiment Station, 145, 149 155, 

169. 
Explorers, 118. 
Exeter, 184. 
Extent, 4. 

Fairbury, 13, 141, 183. 

Fairmont, 184. 

Falls, 57, 58, 59, 60, 67, 70. 

Falls City, 12, 156, 161, 177. 

Ferry boats, 56. 

Fish, 46, 56, 68, 70. 

Floods, 53, 63. 

Flood plains, 16, 55, 56, 67. 

Forage, 155. 

Forest reserves, 165. 

Forestation, 164. 

Formations, 10. 

Fossils, 10, 14, 19, 113. 

Franklin, 184. 

Fremont, 157, 180. 

Frenchman River, 70. 

Friend, 184. 

Frosts, 34. 

Fruit, 92, 106, 156. 

Fruit raising, 156. 

Fuel, 84. 

FuUerton, 181 



Education, 128. 

Educational Institutions, 128. 

Elevation, 18, 19, 60. 

Elkhom River 67, 154. 

Endicott, 13. 

Erosion, 21, 53, 73, 76, 79, 97, 100, 

110. 
Escarpment, 77. 
Evaporation, 36, 38, 43, 68. 



Geneva, 129, 184. 

Genoa, 181. 

Geographic influences, 1, 2. 

Geological surveys, 4, 6. 

Geology, 8. 

Gilead, 139. 

Glaciers, 20, 21. 

Glacial deposits, 16. 

Gordon, 158. 



INDEX 



189 



Grain crops, 152. 

Grand Island, 141, 181. 

Grasshoppers, 125. 

Grazing, 94, 108, 112, 125, 145. 

Great Plains, 4. 

Ground water, 43, 45, 89. 

Gulf of Mexico, 19. 

Hail, 29. 
Hartington, 177. 
Harvard, 184. 
Harvey Fall, 60. 
Hastings, 183. 
Hot Creek, 101. 
Hot Creek basin, 109. 
Havelock, 180. 
Hay, 155. 
Hebron, 183. 
Hemingford, 158. 
High Plains Region, 96. 
Hilly lands, 79, 80. 
Hogback Mountains, 104. 
Holdrege, 184. 
Hogs, 148. 
Homesteaders, 120. 
Home studies, 3. 
Hot winds, 28. 
Houses, 120, 126. 
Humboldt, 177. 
Humidity, 24, 34. 

Ice, 134. 

Ice gorges, 65, 67. 
Indianola, 184. 
Indians, 114, 121. 
Indian reservations, 117. 
Industries, 134. 
Immigration, 127. 
Ionia Volcano, 77. 



Irrigation, 57, 60, 160, 182. 
Isobars, 26, 

Jail Rock, 103. 
Johnson, 139. 

Kearney, 141, 156, 181. 
Key a Paha River. 56. 

Lakes, 5, 20, 90, 163. 

Landslides, 83. 

Latitude, 4. 

Leavitt, 157. • 

Lightning, 29. 

Limestone, 10, 14, 18. 

Lincoln, 13, 156, 158, 171, 178. 

Location of Nebraska, 3, 6, 114. 

Lodge Pole Creek, 61. 

Loess, 16, 21, 80. 

Loess Plains, 72. 

Loess Region, 72. 

Loess Slips, 82. 

Longitude, 4. 

Long Pine, 184. 

Long Pine Canyon, 56. 

Lewis & Clark, 118. 

Louisiana Purchase, 114. 

Louisville. 139. 

Loup, 181. 

Loup Rivers, 54, 65. 

Lynch, 51. 

Madison, 180. 

Mantle Rock, 8. 

Manufactures, 126, 174, 175, 179, 

180, 183. 
Maps, 6, 31, 73. 
McCook, 156, 184. 
Merrill, Mrs. Joseph P., 128. 



190 



THE GEOGRAPHY OB^ NEBRASKA 



Milfonl. 182. 

Minden, 184. 

Mineral resources, 134. 

Missouri River, 5, 55, 122, 

Mormons, 119. 

Morrill, Hon. C. H., 113. 

Morton, Hon. J. Sterling, 176. 

Navigation, 56. 

Nebraska City, 12, 141, 176. 

Nehawka, 139, 156. 

Neligh, 180. 

Nelson, 183. 

Newman Grove, 180. 

Niobrara, 51. 

Niobrara chalk rock, 14, 15, 19, 

140. 
Niobrara River, 56, 57. 
Norfolk, 180. 
North Loup, 157. 
North Platte, 36, 181. 

Oats, 154, 155, 160. 

Occupations, 130. 

Omaha, 16, 36, 122, 128, 130, 

149, 155, 171, 174. 
O'Neill, 180. 
Ord, 181. 
Oregon Trail, 119. 
Orleans, 184. 
Overland routes, 118. 
Oxford, 184. 

Packing houses, 175. 

Parry Falls, 59. 

Pasturage, 84, 94. 

Pawnee, 177. 

Pebbles, 16. 

Pennsylvanian rocks, 10, 11, 12. 



Percolation, 44. 
Permian strata, 12. 
Peru, 134, 141, 175. 
Pierre shale, 15, 19, 46, 140. 
Pine Ridge, 101, 110. 
Plan and purpose, 1. 
Platte River, 54, 60, 161. 
Plattsmouth, 12, 175. 
Ponca, 13, 77, 172. 
Popcorn, 157. 
Population, 127. 
Position of Nebraska, 5, 6. 
Potatoes, 158. 
Poultry raising, 75, 152. 
Prairie dogs, 126. 
Prairie fires, 92. 
Prairie region, 4. 
Precipitation, 24. 
Products, 121. 
Pumpkinseed Valley, 103. 

Quarries, 135, 139. 

Railroads, 121, 122, 126. 

Rain, 28. 

Rainfall, 25, 36, 125. 

Rain gage, 25. 

Ravenna, 181. 

Reclamation, 160. 

Red Cloud, 184. 

Republican River, 68. 

Resources, 134. 

Rivers, 53, 55, 56, 57, 60, 63, 65, 

67, 68, 70, 110. 
Roads, 93. 
Rocks, 8, 10. 
Rock terraces, 76. 
Rocky Mountains, 4, 5, 14. 
Rulo, 177. 



INDEX 



191 



Run-off, 43, 52, 53. 
Rushville, 158. 

Salt Creek, 54, 63. 

Sand, 15, 16. 

Sand Hill Region, 85. 

Sand dunes, 86. 

Sand ridges, 86. 

Sandstone, 12, 13, 18. 

SchlagleFal],58. 

Schuyler, 180. 

Scotts Bluff (town), 181. 

Scotts Bluff, 103. 

Sears Falls, 59. 

Sediment, 21, 

Settlements, 114, 119. 

Seward, 182. 

Shale, 10, 14, 15, 18. 

Sheep, 175. 

Sidney, 181. 

Signal Butte, 103. 

Snake River, 56. 

Snake River Falls, 57. 

Snow, 37. 

Soil, 2, 44, 83, 91, 107, 157. 

South Omaha, 152, 175. 

South Platte River, 60. 

Springs, 46. 

Stage coach, 124. 

Steamboats, 121. 

Stinard Falls, 58. 

Stock raising, 142. 

Stone, 2, 135. 

Storms, 29. 

Story, Stephen, 119. 

St. Paul, 181. 

Strata, 9. 

Streams, 53, 55. 

Sugar beets- 157. 



Sunshine, 24, 34, 157. 
Superior, 184. 
Surface storage, 43. 
Sutton, 184. 

Table Rock, 141.177. 

Tecumseh, 177. 

Tekamah, 13. 

Temperature, 23, 28, 33, 34, 41. 

Terraces, 73, 76. 177, 184. 

Thermograph, 23. 

Thunder storms, 28, 29, 37. 

Till, 16, 21. 

Toadstool Park, 110. 

Todd Valley, 75. 

Topographic regions, 6, 72, 75, 96, 

109. 
Topographic survey, 6. 
Tornadoes, 29. 
Towns, 171. 
Traders, 118. 
Trading posts, 118. 
Transportation, 56, 118, 122. 
Trappers, 118. 
Travel, 56, 94, 122. 
Trees, 84, 93, 107, 112. 
Trenton, 184. 

United States, 4, 31. 

Valentine, 56, 58, 185. 
Valley, 156. 

Valleys, 9, 53, 55, 73, 75, 97. 
Vegetation, 91, 106, 112. 
Verdigris Creek, 56. 

Wahoo 180. 

Water power, 57, 67, 68, 70, 134. 

Water table, 44. 



192 



THE GEOGRAPHY OF NEBRASKA 



Water vapor, 34. 

Wauneta Fall, 70. 

Wayne, 180. 

Weather, 23, 25. 

Weather Bureau, 23, 30, 31. 

Weather forecasting, 30. 

Weathering, 14. 

Weather maps, 31. 

Weeping Water, 12, 139, 177. 

Wells, 47, 51, 107, 111. 

Well water, 47, 83. 105. 



West Point, 186. 
Wheat, 154, 169. 
White River, 101, 110. 
Wilber, 182. 

Wild Cat Mountains, 104. 
Wild Cat Range, 103. 
Winds, 23, 27, 36. 
Wymore, 12, 139, 182. 

York, 183. 



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